Notes on Iliad books 1-24

Book 1

The beginning of the poem sets forth various themes of the work. What do we see in these first lines? Notice how it says "Anger be now your song, immortal one." The theme, of course, is the anger of Achilles, and the effects of that anger. Thus the poem will explore that private anger, especially how it led to a general devastation of the Greeks. The private thus has an influence on the public -- the question again of the relationship between man and society. At the same time, when it mentions "and the will of Zeus was done" we see the suggestion that this also involves questions of the will of the gods. Notice too the poem calls upon the goddess , the 'immortal one' to help the poet tell his story.

One of the criticisms of this introduction is that it really doesn't say much about the plot of the poem; but that is not the point. The point is that the central focus of the poem is the wrath of Achilles and the terrific price it exacts.

Note the Epic then jumps into the story. We should note that at this point the Trojan war has been going on nine years. Thus the Iliad is not really about the Trojan war, but only about a short space of it, only forty or so days. The initial focus is going to be the famous quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, but, before we see Achilles, we must see Agamemnon, and learn a bit about what kind of character he is. While he is a great hero, he is nevertheless pictured as man who is filling a role too big for him, who has inherited his status rather than earned it, and who thus is always imagining suspected insults to his dignity. In doing so he violates the social contracts of Greek society as well as insults the gods.

We see this is the following scene. The Trojan priest of Apollo Khryses had come to the Greek camp to ransom his daughter, who had been captured and made a concubine of Agamemnon. Khryses has come with wonderful gifts, and, because he is priest of Apollo, it would be fitting for Agamemnon to agree to a ransom -- as the other Greeks make clear (page 12). But Agamemnon refuses, and insults the prophet to boot, and rubs it in. Why does he do this? First, because Agamemnon sees prophets (whose authority comes from the gods) as a potential threat to his own authority. Also, Khryses was a present given to him by the Greeks, and he feels, somehow, that his honor is involved in keeping it.

The old priests goes off alone and prays to Apollo, who responds, bringing a plague upon the Greeks. Apollo is a god of music, prophecy and rationality, as well as of medicine -- and thus also of plague. Finally, on the tenth day after the beginning of the plague Hera moves Achilles to call a meeting of the Greeks to see what can be done. Hera, wife of Zeus, is one of the chief supporters of the Greeks. Nevertheless, the fact that it is Hera who moves Achilles is probably a bad sign, for most of her plots turn out for the worse, and this meeting is nearly the ruin of the Greeks. Achilles calls upon the Greek's own prophet, Kalkhas, to tell them why the gods were angry. (page 13) . I said earlier that Agamemnon does not like prophets, who often say inconvenient things, and thus Khalkas makes Achilles first swear to protect him before he will speak. And when he does, he proclaims how the Greeks are paying for Agamemnon's insult of Khryses.

We see more of Agamemnon's character as he responds, not only insulting the prophet but even his own wife. (mid. page 15) Then note what Agamemnon says, that he will give up the woman if the Greeks give him a prize as compensation. Why does Agamemnon do this? Remember, the woman is the physical sign of Agamemnon's status. To give her up without compensation is a loss of status. Agamemnon, being insecure cannot stand any loss of status, any more than he can, at this point, admit that he was wrong in what he did.

This stubborn arrogance provokes Achilles, although he does agree to compensate Agamemnon later. This first book creates a powerful first impression of Achilles. He is concerned for the welfare of the community, but he is also a man of action. Achilles is no diplomat. If he had been, he would have let somebody else respond to Agamemnon at this point, or at least watched his words. But Achilles acts, straight on. The truth is that Agamemnon, as we shall see, has resented Achilles a long time, because, although Agamemnon is the most powerful king and the 'first among equals' among the Greek kings, he knows that his glory is less than that of Achilles, although Achilles comes from a small kingdom, because of Achilles divine descent and the fact he is a far greater warrior than Agamemnon -- and Achilles knows it. Achilles, in turn, is frustrated at having to be subservient to Agamemnon, for he knows he is the best.

Agamemnon feels threatened, and needs to assert his authority, saying he is able, if he wants to, to take Achilles concubine, or Odysseus', or one from another Greek leader. Such behavior is a violation of the social code, for, in effect Agamemnon is threatening to take away some of the status of other kings as payment for his own mistake. Notice that Agamemnon doesn't actually say he intends to take away Achilles' concubine. But that is all Achilles hears. Now Achilles is deeply enraged. As I just said, Achilles has for a long while hated being subordinate to Agamemnon, and the frustration burst forth on page 16.

Also something else is going on here. As I said in class, Achilles enlisted earlier to gain glory, knowing if he gained glory he would have a short life. Yet, what is his glory worth if a lesser, but more powerful man like Agamemnon can take away his glory with impunity? And thus he insults Agamemnon, and threatens to leave Troy and head back to Greece. Thus the argument further escalates. Notice how Agamemnon's resentment of Achilles is shown (mid. page 17), and how he then decides to take Achilles' concubine Briseis to show who is the more powerful.

Matters have come to a head, as Agamemnon has offered a deadly insult to Achilles, and Achilles is at the point of taking out his sword and killing Agamemnon then and there when Athene stops him. Athene is often a patron of war-heroes, being Zeus' favorite daughter. At this point we also should ask what to make of Athene's action, or rather, how does Homer expect his audience to react to this?

What we should see here is the principle of double-causation. At the human level, we might say that Achilles simply has a sudden inspiration that stops him. Athene is also associated with wisdom, so, at this level, the mental process is identified with Athene. At the same time there is also a sense that Athene herself has intervened. What I mean by 'double-causation' is that many events in Homer can be explained on both levels -- both in terms of human psychology and divine intervention. For the Greeks, it was not an either/or proposition.

Athene orders Achilles not to kill Agamemnon, and instead to insult him, and promises him greater rewards later. Achilles obeys, and roundly insults Agamemnon, calling him an coward and worse. Then Achilles takes the herald's staff, which he had been holding (which gave him the right to call the Assembly) and then tosses it down on the ground. This is a deeply symbolic gesture, for it makes the moment that Achilles withdraws from the community of the Greeks. He will withdraw to show the Greeks and Agamemnon how much they really need him. Here we see another aspect too of Achilles' character -- is sharp, extreme anger. This will in many respect be his undoing. The core of the epic is the withdrawal of Achilles, its effects on the Greeks, the tragedy that results from it, and how Achilles is reconciled to the Greeks and the human condition.

At this point the student, accustomed to the discipline of modern armies, may think Achilles something of a cry-baby or traitor. But this not the case, when we look at it in terms of Homeric morality. Homeric society was held together by mutual respect and a system of giving and receiving honor based on rank and honorable deeds accomplished. Agamemnon, in taking away Achilles' concubine, has grossly offended that rule; he has dishonored Achilles terribly, and Achilles is right to withdraw. Nobody at this point actually condemns him. Again, we should remember that Achilles knows he will die young at Troy, for Agamemnon -- yet Agamemnon dishonors him like this?

Achilles sits down, and then Nestor rises to speak. Nestor is the oldest of the Greek Kings, having lived from a prior generation until know. Critics have suggested that in an earlier version of the Iliad story Nestor was of even more importance, since he is from Pylos, the second largest city in Mycenaean Greece. Thus he is the voice of traditional wisdom, and is one of Agamemnon's strongest supporters. There may be something slightly comic about him at times -- he is a bit long winded -- but we should see that in Homer's arguments were not generally carried out according to step-by-step logic; that sort of thinking is foreign to the Iliad. Rather, examples of past events had great power, and Nestor, being so old, knows all of them, and has lived though them. Nestor warns both Agamemnon and Achilles, without insulting either. He points out that Achilles' concubine was a prize that the whole Greek army awarded Achilles and Agamemnon should not take it away. Achilles in turn should not disobey Agamemnon, even though he is more powerful and the son of a goddess.

Notice (page 21) that Agamemnon admits to Nestor that what Nestor says is true, but he cannot relent, because he feels (in his insecure way) that Achilles is trying to usurp his authority. Achilles, in turn, by now cannot stand having to obey Agamemnon. That is the heart of their quarrel.

The Assembly breaks up. Men are assigned to man a ship captained by Odysseus to sent Khryseis back. Others burn hecatombs (sacrifices of one hundred animals) to Apollo. After this Agamemnon sends two heralds (= messengers) to get Briseis from Achilles. They go off reluctantly, but Achilles receives them nobly. Notice here (page 22) we are introduced to Achilles' best friend, Patroclus. He will become much more important later.

They take the girl away, and Achilles goes to the side of the sea to lament and pray to his mother Thetis, who is a sea goddess. We remember how Gilgamesh also constantly called upon his divine mother. Notice the contrast here as Achilles, who is fated to die young fighting for Agamemnon, calls upon his mother, who is immortal. Achilles wanted to die with glory, but his honor has been badly injured by Agamemnon's insult. Thetis then materializes out of the sea to comfort her son, who gives her a summation of the situation. Then (page 24) he begs that she go to Mt. Olympus (home of the Greek gods) and beg Zeus' help. Achilles points out that, long ago, when various gods planned to gang up against Zeus and chain him, she alone informed him of the plot and saved him. He owes her one. Notice that Achilles further asks that Zeus take the Trojan's side, so that more Greeks will die, so that in turn the Greek will realize how much they miss Achilles. ]

His mother, after lamenting how short-lived her son is (as if he doesn't realize it!) promises to go off to Olympus and talk to Zeus as soon as he returns from the Sun-burnt (= the Ethiopians) who are having a festival in his honor. Thetis leaves, and in the interval Odysseus gives back Khryseis and her father prays to Apollo for the plague to be lifted, and it is. This scene ends with a feast in honor of Apollo. (26-7) The next day Odysseus returns, while Achilles keeps away from the Greeks beside his ships. It should be noted that Achilles' ships occupy one extreme end of the Greek line of ships (the other end is held by his cousin Ajax).

When the twelfth day has come, Thetis goes up to Olympus to see Zeus and beg the favor from him. Thetis tells him the whole story, but Zeus is reluctant to help, because he knows any support of the Trojans against the Greeks will inflame Hera. Thus, just as there was a quarrel among the Greek chiefs, so there will be soon a quarrel among the Gods, between Zeus and Hera. But Homer makes clear the enormous difference between the quarrels of gods and men. Zeus is like a none-too-honest husband beset with a nagging wife. The description is almost comic -- but the quarrels of human being are matters of life and death, and thus have a tragic potential that the quarrels of the Greek gods, who cannot die, and live in eternal splendor, cannot have.

Zeus, despite Hera's potential opposition, agrees. The lines at the top of page 29, as Zeus nods his head, were said to be the inspiration for the great statue of Zeus at Olympia made by Pheidias. Thetis leaves, and Hera immediately knows something is up, and quickly begins to accuse Zeus, and Zeus (like Agamemnon) puts her in her place, at one point threatening force. Then, just as Nestor tried to calm the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, so Hephaistos, the lame god of manufacturing and son of Zeus and Hera, tries to soften their quarrel.

This whole scene has an interesting portrayal of inter-family violence. People who deal with family violence note that often children try to defuse the conflicts between parents, or take the side of one parent Note how Hephaistos tells of the time when he tried to take the side of his mother, and Zeus threw him all the way to the island of Lemnos. Hephaistos defuses the situation by going around pouring wine. That was traditionally done by Ganymede, the beautiful young cup-bearer of the gods, and thus there is something quite funny in seeing the limping Hephaistos bustling around serving wine.

Thus peace is restored amid gales of laughter. But, as the prologue noted, the death caused by the wrath of Achilles has behind it the will of Zeus. We now have seen how Zeus has decided that he will help the Trojans deal setbacks to the Greeks and thus make them miss Achilles. We also can suspect that, since Hera is so opposed, Zeus' plan will suffer opposition, as it will.

Book 2

At the end of book I we saw how Zeus had agreed with Thetis to make the Greeks miss Achilles by helping the Trojans despite Hera's opposition. That night Zeus debates how to bring this about. Zeus decides to send a deceiving Dream down to Agamemnon to persuade him that he can take Troy by immediately making an all-out attack. During this attack, of course, the Greeks will suffer reversals. One question we can ask ourselves here: what does the fact that Zeus sends a deceitful dream to Agamemnon say about the way the gods treat men in the Iliad? Further, for such divine deceit there was a Greek word, ate, or 'delusion', which, when spectacular (what on earth was he thinking of?) was thought to be sent by the Gods.

The Dream comes to Agamemnon in the shape of Nestor, Agamemnon's most trusted councilor; this has psychological plausibility. Notice how the message the Dream gives is in parts nearly identical to what Zeus is just represented as saying.

When Agamemnon wakes and dressing himself, note (bottom of page 36, top of 37) note the piece by piece description of each article of clothing he puts on. This is a variation of an arming-scene. Arming scenes are given to important characters, and often come before major events, as a kind of prelude, a delay that builds suspense.

At dawn Agamemnon decides to call a conference of his leading captains and tell his dream and his plan to immediately attack Troy. The meeting is held, and for a third time the message is repeated in nearly the same language. But notice (page 37) how Agamemnon goes beyond the instructions, and wants first to test the troops by instead suggesting to the troops that he wants to return home.

Why on earth does Agamemnon do this? One suggestion is that Agamemnon, now that Achilles has left, wants to test the troops to confirm that they feel confident in his leadership. Agamemnon wants them to show him that they are not like Achilles, who has deserted him. He wants to know that Achilles' withdrawal have not weakened his position. We must remember that Agamemnon is both insecure and deluded, and both his arrogance and insecurity drive him to this.

Now the regular troops are assembled, a huge throng, like buzzing bees. (page 38), Notice the long description of the staff that Agamemnon holds. This is another vivid description that is a prelude to an important event, as well as one able to convey the power that Agamemnon holds. It is also ironic, for all this power will be confounded in the troops' reaction to Agamemnon's message.

Agamemnon admits defeat and suggests to the troops that they go home. Now Agamemnon expected a protest from the troops, demanding to fight at Troy to the end - victory or death. Instead there is a pell-mell rush for the ships. This is a very different reception than Agamemnon expected. This is the beginning of the process by which Agamemnon learns and comes to admit what he did to Achilles was wrong. Note also it creates a bit of suspense for the reader, who knows that Troy must be taken, yet wonders how Agamemnon will get out of this situation.

Matters seem now out of control, but Hera sends Athene to goad Odysseus to take charge. We should remember that Odysseus is also a very important right hand man for Agamemnon. Odysseus is known for his trickery and wits, as well as being a good fighter. Athene coming to Odysseus is both a divine act as one symbolic of human wisdom coming to a sudden decision. Odysseus wades into the throng. Note how differently he treats officers and enlisted men. The officers he treats with persuasion, letting them know that this Agamemnon's test, and they had better be careful. But when Odysseus meets common enlisted men (bottom of page 41) he beats them with his staff and tells them to sit down and shut up. As I said in class, this epic is for aristocrats who were very worried about the changing times in Greece, of the rise of the common people who didn't always give the nobles their old respect. Here they are put in their place.

Odysseus is able to calm everybody down except Thersites, who is a grotesque caricature of the non-aristocratic man, ugly in body, deed and word. He is what the aristocrats feared, for he is saying (page 42) exactly what many of the soldiers probably think -- Agamemnon gets all the gold and bronze and slave girls and the common soldiers get nothing. And then Thersites proposes that they too withdraw, like Achilles.

Odysseus curses his and beats him into silence. There is another bit of cleverness here. Agamemnon and the captains do not want the soldiers to understand the true lack of support for the war. Thus Odysseus, by picking on Thersites, fixes the blame for the retreat to the ship not on the whole army, but rather as the result of Thersites and a few malcontents that have misled the people. Note that Homer pictures the soldiers as uneasy, yet they support Odysseus. The aristocracy has triumphed. The truth, of course, was not so simple.

Now Odysseus rises to make the speech Agamemnon wanted to hear. Odysseus in effect says (page 44 ff. ) yes, things have been terrible, but it would be a great dishonor (always an important factor in the Heroic world) if they went home without victory. Then Odysseus mentions the oracles, gained long ago at Aulis, where the Greek fleet gathered before sailing to Troy. From this point in book II though book VI we have a number of scenes which, while not strict flashbacks, nevertheless enact events that recall earlier events of the war. For example in this scene we see the omen that the Greeks got that predicted their victory in the eighth year. Then will come the Catalogue of Ships, which will be like a line-up before a football game, a scene that makes more scene at the beginning of a war than near its end. In book III we shall see Helen identify the Greek warriors to King Priam -- who by now certainly would know who they were, etc.

Again on page 45 Odysseus tells of the original prophecy of a snake that ate all eight young birds and then the mother as ninth and then was turned to stone, signifying that in the tenth year the Greeks will have victory. Nestor echoes Odysseus' speech, and his address also contains a recollection of another prophecy, one that came soon after Odysseus'. Nestor further suggests that Agamemnon marshal the troops by clans, so that it might be easier to see who is fighting best. Of course, this sets us up for the coming Catalogue of Ships.

Agamemnon is grateful for the support. This near-miss has shaken Agamemnon. Notice that Thersites' speech (which echoed many of the sentiments of the common soldier) showed great support of Achilles. Notice (bottom of page 47) that Agamemnon says that "Zeus the stormking sent me misery, plunging me into futile brawls and feuds. I mean Akhilleus and myself. We fought like enemies, in words, over a girl - and I gave way to anger first." This shock has made Agamemnon begin to realize his mistake. But Agamemnon must progress further, to the point where he will make amends to Achilles.

Then Agamemnon (page 48) proposes a sacrifice followed by a feast as part of the preparations for all-out war. The Greek captains make the sacrifice, pray and there follows a expected feast. These passages are very formulaic, especially in the description of the actual sacrifice. We should note that the feast is more than simply a way of feeding the troops, Feasts in the Homeric world symbolize community, and thus a feast is appropriate event to follow the near dissolution of the community in the flight to the ships.

Nestor (page 49), after the feast, again suggests that they hurry up and assemble the troops and rouse them for war. This is done with Athene's help. Athene waves the aegis, (page 50) a tasseled goatskin bearing the head of the Medusa, which once could turn men to stone, and now can petrify the enemy with fear. The Greeks fighters in a huge swarm come together, and Zeus even makes Agamemnon seem extremely lordly.

Notice how (middle of page 51) the poet calls upon the Muses to help his recall all the contingents in the Greek army. This is the Catalogue of Ships, and it probably is an old part of the tradition, recalling the famous places of the Bronze Age and their heroes. Now that, now that Homer has vividly set forth the basic conflict, he can backtrack and fill in the setting and its players a bit more. As I said above, this Catalogue probably originally belonged to a part of the cycle of Trojan legends that described the gathering of the ships at the port of Aulis in Greece, but was included here by Homer to give background. One suspects that this catalogue had many forms, and could be expanded or changed depending on who was listening -- if, let us say the audience for Homer was people from Argos, the section on the Argive heroes would be longer.

The roster of Greek forces goes on to page 61. Afterwards Homer gives a parallel, but shorter, catalogue of the Trojan forces. The goddess Iris in the form of Polites the son of Priam warns the Trojans about the huge Greek forces that have gathered (page 61) and calls upon Priam (king of Troy) and Hector (another son of Priam who is the greatest fighter of the Trojans) to get their forces ready for battle. Homer clearly wants us to see how central Hector is to the Trojan war effort. Notice too how the Trojans and their allies are a collection of many different peoples, probably reflecting the historical situation in the area around Troy. Hector heeds the advice, which leads to a shorter catalogue of the Trojan forces.

Book 3

The focus shifts to the Trojans. Now that Homer has made us understand what the issues are on the Greek side, he will show us the Trojans and why they are fighting and make us care about them. This poem is definitely not about Good Guys vs. The Evil Ones. In fact, it can be argued that Hector is the most noble person in the epic. Also, while the chief concern of the Epic is the tragedy of Achilles, we can appreciate that story more by comparing to the parallel story of Hector, who is also a tragic hero.

Book III takes up where Book II leaves off. We should remember that these books divisions are not Homer's, but were created about five hundred years later by Hellenistic scholars. The Trojan warriors swarm together to go to meet the Greeks. On page 68 we first see Alexandros, also called Paris, or Paris Alexander, the cause of the war. Immediately afterward Homer focuses on Menelaus, whose wife Paris has stolen. As I said before, this book sums up what has gone before, and the coming confrontation between Menelaus and Paris sums up the nature of the war as fight between these two men and their nations for Helen. Homer also wants us to learn what Paris is like and to despise him. Paris Alexandros is all boasting and false bravery -- although he can be a good warrior. Note how, when Alexandros sees Menelaus coming after him, he quickly backs away and hides himself in the ranks. (page 68). This retreat may not only be due to cowardice, but perhaps too out of an awareness of the wrong that he has done against men and gods in taking Helen away, and thus he thinks the gods would help Menelaus if they ever engaged hand to hand. At the same time, Hector's swift condemnation of his brother makes us admire Hector more, and helps us see one aspect of Hector's tragedy. He is the chief warrior of his city, and he clearly thinks his brother is in the wrong. But, as we see, the Trojans are politically too weak to force Paris to give Helen back, and Hector, out of loyalty to his city, must fight in a cause he knows in his heart is wrong.

In turn Paris' reply shows that he knows that his main talent is in the bedroom, not the battlefield. He is a smooth talker and rather unheroic about heroism, but can rise to the occasion as he offers to fight Menelaus for Helen. He is an easy-going, a likable rogue, and this perhaps explains why he is able to get away with so much. Again, this coming duel between Menelaus and Paris is symbolic of the conflict between the two men for all these long years.

Hector makes his army stand still, as does Agamemnon, and the duel is proposed and also sacrifices to confirm the agreement that whoever wins gets Helen. But instead of describing the duel immediately, Homer cuts to Troy. This is a delaying tactic to build up suspense, for we know the duel cannot end the conflict, but we wonder what will happen. Also this scene fills in more background, as it allows us to see Helen, the other cause of the war. Notice when we see Helen she is weaving a cloak filled with scenes from the Trojan war (page 71), probably symbolizing her as the cause of the war. Iris (another messenger of the gods) gives Helen the idea go out and see what is happening and to learn about the coming duel and her possible fate. While Helen is another 'villain' of the poem, Homer does not mean us to see her as a monster. She is humanized by the evident guilt she feels, and by her homesickness for Greece. She is a bit like a woman who has left her rather boring husband of the country for a slick stud from the big city and now is trapped, and realizes it.

She goes to one of the towers of Troy, where Priam and the old councilors of the Trojans are waiting. Now Helen's beauty was legendary, and nowhere does Homer try to make us really see what she looked like. Instead he demonstrates her beauty by the effect it has on others. Note the old men of Troy, when they see Helen (bottom of page 72) can well understand why they are fighting for her, so supernatural is her beauty.

Then we see Priam, the old king of the Trojans. He is a kind and gentle and probably somewhat weak man. At this point, illogically, he asks Helen to identify the Greek heroes for him. Again, this fills in more background, letting us know more about the Greek heroes.

Note Helen's own sense of guilt in her reply. She then identifies Agamemnon, and then Odysseus. As she does so other Trojans tell of their experiences with them. Note the description of Odysseus, who at first seems a rather dense fellow, who is very impressive when he talked. Odysseus, while a very standard Greek hero, has some odd characteristics as we shall see in the Odyssey. He may have originally been a non-Greek hero himself, coming from the edge of the Greek world and having what appears to be a non-Greek name.

Notice Helen does not see her brothers Castor and Polydeukes, whom she fears are either dead (they are) or refuse to show themselves out of shame for their sister.

Now the story line gets back to the matter of the duel, as a messenger calls Priam to attend the ceremonies that surround the coming duel. Priam goes out on the field, and the scene of prayer and sacrifice that follow (pages 77-8) have an important function. While Homer wants us to be sympathetic toward the Trojans, he also wants us to see they are in the wrong. Here the Trojans will swear an oath to the gods, and in the next book they will break their oath and not live up to its terms, attempting to murder Menelaus in the process.

And then comes the duel. Since it is an important scene, notice the arming scene (top of page 79) that comes before. Alexandros (= Paris) gets to toss his spear first. These battle scenes are also formulaic; usually one or both of the heroes involved addresses their enemy, and then there is a one or more exchanges of spear casts, usually ending in a description of the death-dealing wound and the stripping of the corpse or a battle over it. As you read more of the Iliad, look for such scenes. Here after the spear-casts Menelaus attacks with his sword, which shatters, whereupon he grabs Alexandros by the helmet crest and drags him back toward the lines. The chin-strap is snapped, and Aphrodite, (who favors the Trojans and especially Paris) takes Paris to Troy away before Menelaus can kill him. Such blatant divine interventions are rare in Homer, and seem more to resemble stories in earlier types of epic, which had more such supernatural events.

The following scene set in Troy is also a kind of flashback, which reduplicates in a sense the original seduction of Helen by Paris with Aphrodite's help. Aphrodite disguised as a serving-woman invites Helen to the bed of Alexandros, who is, of course, very handsome. Notice at the description Helen, in spite of herself, is excited. At the same time Helen realizes that this is the doing of Aphrodite who is goading her into doing what she knows is wrong -- as Aphrodite did long ago back in Sparta. Aphrodite then threatens her, and off Helen goes to Paris.

The next scene, the meeting of Alexandros and Helen is important in several ways. This couple who are now held together by lust and crime and guilt, will provide a strong contrast to the other couple we shall see in domestic quarters, that is Hector and Andromache. Helen now in her heart knows that Paris is a weaker man than Menelaus and a rogue -- but note what a shameless smooth talker Alexandros is. They end up going to bed together, which recalls the first time they made love -- as Paris indicates by his reference to the island of Krane, where they first mated. Thus this scene recalls the original seduction of Helen of Troy.

The book ends with a return to the battlefield, as all wonder where Paris is and Agamemnon proclaims Menelaus the winner.

Book 4.

At this point the reader knows that this cannot be the conclusion -- Troy must be sacked.This book begins with a council of the Gods, and it gives us insight into how Homer pictures the interaction between gods and human affairs. It is not a pretty picture, and recalls in some respects how the gods in the Gilgamesh epic acted. Remember there the gods are not in agreement, but Shamash thwarts the actions of Enlil. Homer's Greeks, to the extent they took the gods seriously, probably imagined that chaos in the human world mirrored chaos in the divine world. In many ways Homer's gods are super-powerful humans with their own petty desires for revenge. The scene is also somewhat humorous, as Zeus taunts both Athene and Hera with the possibility that the war may end here, and Troy will not be sacked. Athene protests, and Zeus notes their intense hatred of Troy, and in effect says that, to keep peace among the gods, he will give in to them, although Troy has always held him in high honor -- but he reserves the right to destroy one of their cities if he wants to. And then, chillingly, Hera says that Zeus can, if he wants to destroy any of her favorite cities. With this proclamation by Zeus Homer means us to see and feel that Troy is doomed. He also shows the popular idea that human woes derive from divine animosity. Thus Athene is sent down to cause the Trojans to break the treaty so that the war will resume.

The following scene, as Athene persuades Pandaros to try to treacherously kill Menelaus in violation of the treaty, must be interpreted on a number of levels. Homer means us to see the crime of Pandaros as linked to the crime of Paris Alexandros; that is, Troy has a long reputation for deceit and lying and violating human and divine law. While Athene does seem to goad Pandaros, we should see that in fact Athene is only making Pandaros do what he wants to do anyway. In other words, the gods do not compel us to act unjustly totally against our will -- they simply provide the push that makes us destroy ourselves.

So Athene goes amid the Trojan ranks disguised as a friend of Pandaros and tempts him with the glory he will get if he kills Menelaus. Remember, the desire for personal glory was very great, and could easily override notions of law and order. Notice that Pandaros doesn't say a word that would suggest any hesitation to break the treaty. Thus it is clear that this suggestion is eagerly accepted by Pandaros. Notice, before Pandaros actually shoots at Menelaus there is a long description of his bow and how he made it. (page 91) This description has the same function as an arming scene; that is, when an important event is about to happen, such descriptions underscore the importance of the coming events. The long description of the act of drawing the bow and how it barely hit Menelaus also points to the importance of the episode. This episode, of course, causes the war to resume and represents a breach of divine law (for elaborate oaths had earlier been sworn to Zeus) whose violation Troy will be punished for. This is shown by Agamemnon's following words on page 93 "No, no, if the Olympian (= Zeus) upon the instant has not exacted punishment, he will in his good time....For I know well in my heart and soul; the day must come when holy Ilion is given to fire and sword and Priam perishes...."

Yet even while he says this he doubts, for Agamemnon thinks if Menelaus dies he will be forced to give up the expedition. One of the things we must see about the character of Agamemnon is that he has, let us say, mood swings, from arrogant self-confidence to despair. Agamemnon, comforted by the fact that it is only a flesh wounds, send for a medic.

Now at this point (page 95 ff. ) the Greeks, knowing that the Trojans have violated divine law, are fired up. I said earlier that these books in a sense reduplicate earlier events at Troy. The battle scenes that follow, especially the glorious deeds of Diomedes, reproduce what happened in the earlier days of the Trojan war, when the Greeks, confident that they had Zeus on their side due to Paris Alexandros' treachery, started the war and had major successes with the help of Achilles.

So now, as battle is about to begin, Agamemnon inspects the army, giving out praise and blame as needed. Such scenes were no doubt common in the real battles of Homer's times. This inspection scene, of course, lets us see more of the leading fighters and their spirit. Notice how the Cretan captain Idomeneus repeats the notions that the Trojans are doomed (page 97, top).

As Agamemnon comes toward the more remote parts of the line, he sees Odysseus, who has not yet received his orders and is waiting idle. Agamemnon does not know this, and immediately criticizes him. Of course, this shows another aspect of Agamemnon's character - - he is too hasty to blame, and does not sufficiently respect the rather touchy personalities of his main captains. Further, note these lines (bottom of page 99)

"You two should be/ among the first in action, in the blaze/of combat -- as you are the first to hear/ my word of feasting, every time we Akhaians / prepare a feast for our staff officers...

These lines illustrate an important rule and the basis of the aristocrats power. If you want the public honor of the heroic feast -- which symbolizes your aristocratic status - you must be willing to prove yourself by boldness in combat.

Odysseus gives a sharp reply, and Agamemnon retreats. He knows Odysseus is one of his strongest supporters and thus restrains himself. But next Agamemnon comes to Diomedes, who is a young warrior, who has yet to make a fully glorious name for himself. Agamemnon likewise sharply criticizes Diomedes. In these early books Diomedes is a stand-in for Achilles; that is, we see Diomedes acts and is treated in ways similar to Achilles earlier. At the same time, Diomedes shows character traits that contrast him to Achilles, if only because he is younger. In the next books the glorious deeds of Diomedes will be highlighted (his aristeia), and this relatively long scene serves to concentrate focus on him; notice the long description of the great deeds of Diomedes' father, Tydeus. Remember, in the Greek world you were very much defined by who your parents were. The great victory of Tydeus in the previous generation will give us a taste of what his son Diomedes will do.

Diomedes is no Achilles, and accepts Agamemnon's insult without complaint. The retort he should have made is put into the mouth of his friend Sthenelos. Notice (page 102 top) that Diomedes tells Sthenelos to stop, because he realizes that Agamemnon is just doing what he has too. Diomedes, unlike Achilles, is willing to put the communal goal of war ahead of concern for personal insults.

The inspection over, the Greek and Trojan battle lines move toward each other. Notice the contrast between the Greek lines, mostly silent in rage and purpose, as opposed to the babbling of the Trojans and their multinational allies. Then comes a formulaic description of the first clash of battle, then a tight focus on the first man to kill his man, Antilokhos. We should remember that, for Homer and his audience, honor was gained in person-to-person duels. What the mass of troops was doing is of lesser importance. Other killings follow. Notice some common elements, like the description of wounds, the stripping off the armor of the corpse (so you can have a trophy of your exploits), fights over the dead body (so it cannot be stripped), amplification by telling a bit of the history of the warriors involved.

As the battle rages, the reader might wonder -- didn't Zeus just decide to help the Trojans? Why then are the Greeks at this point clearly winning? Again, these passages are meant to illustrate the early successes of the Greeks and the divine punishment that comes from the Trojan treachery. Also, these successes will only make the despair deeper when the tide of battle eventually does turn against the Greeks.

Book 5.

Book 5 is one of the "battle books.", and continues the action. For us these scenes may be boring, but one must consider them as Homer's audience would have. Think of today, how sports commentators and fans endlessly go on about fine passes, great blocks, intricate plays, terrific hits, and give details of sports injuries. The original audience of Homeric epic are the warrior aristocrats of Dark Age Greece, for whom battle was a necessary part of life and the way to glory. Homer does keep boredom at bay by providing a lot of variation, although we might not notice it, since the topic does not interest us. As you read descriptions of these battles, look for formulae and the way Homer varies the battles and their details.

As the first line indicates, this book highlights the notable deeds of Diomedes, his aristeia. Athene, who is a patroness of warriors gives him special power. To the Greek outstanding excellence of any sort was thought to be a god given gift.

It is time for the heroes, however, to fight alone, and so Athene gets Ares the war god to leave the field for a time and sit on the sidelines with her. Ares is on the Trojan side, reflecting the fact that Ares was probably originally a god from the region near Troy.

After a swift account of a number of killings, the focus turns on Pandaros. Diomedes will avenge the treachery of Pandaros, and we must see how that is accomplished. Pandaros again tries to use the bow, and again he only wounds Diomedes. Athene gives Diomedes extra strength to make up for the wound. Then notice how (page 113) Athene promises to clear the mist from Diomedes' eyes so he may see any gods on the battlefield. Notice too she makes him promise not to challenge any god that he might see, save Aphrodite.

What is going on here? I think this episode is also drawn from earlier epic, where humans and gods could mix more freely. Notice, for example, how Enkidu in the Gilgamesh epic can toss the thigh of the Bull of Heaven directly as Ishtar. It is interesting that in this book, Aphrodite (who is the Greek equivalent of Ishtar) also suffers insult at the hand of a human.

But there is an important contrast. Diomedes is shown to be a more ideal warrior in terms of character, and he will not commit the impiety of fighting against the gods -- except Aphrodite, who Athene allows him to attack.

Now, Diomedes, inspired by Athene, reenters the battle. (bottom of page 113). There follows a whole series of deaths of insignificant people, who get little distinguishing detail.

Aineas (or Aeneas in Latin), another important Trojan prince, sees the carnage and seeks help from Pandaros, who knows some god is helping Diomedes. Pandaros' long speech 115-6 signifies the importance of the following scene, when Diomedes makes his first truly important kill (the rest were really no-names) as he slays Pandaros, and thus avenging the Greeks. Aineas offers to drive Pandaros on his chariot so that they can attack Diomedes together.

Sthenelos, Diomedes comrade, sees the two bearing down on them and advises retreat, but Diomedes scorns this advice, and instead tells him that he is going to try to kill both of them, and tells him to prepare to capture Aineas' supernatural horses. This description, of course, lets us know that Aineas is a first-rate hero and the fact that Diomedes nearly kills him is a tribute to his glory.

They come in range, and Pandaros, who is not having luck with the bow that day, tries to hit Diomedes with a spear. This is a full-fledged duel. Notice that first that Pandaros shouts at Diomedes (= son of Tydeus), casts his spear, and then brags (too soon!) of his success. Diomedes replies sharply, then casts his own spear. Then follows a very explicit description of the wound. Aineas jumps down from the chariot to stop Diomedes from stripping the body, and Diomedes picked up a huge rock, and breaks his hip-bone. Aineas would have died, but again Aphrodite shields him. Aphrodite is the mother of Aineas, and Aineas can' t die now -- he's got to star in another Epic!

Sthenelos, following Diomedes' advice, seizes the horses of Aineas. Meanwhile Diomedes goes after Aineas and Aphrodite -- he can see her, with Athene's help. He manages to hit Aphrodite with his spear and wound her in the hand. She runs away, with Diomedes insulting her, and leaves Apollo to carry Aineas away. She then begs Ares (who in the Odyssey in her lover) to led him her horses to take her away to her mother Dione.

What does Homer give us this scene? First of all, I suspect that it comes from the fact that Aphrodite was originally Ishtar, who is a goddess of both love and war, and who took action in battles. As I said in class, in Greek myth Ares and Aphrodite are often seen as lovers, and this may reflect the close relationship between love and war in the goddess that Aphrodite derived from. Greek religion moved from a more-female centered religion to a more male-centered (as did Mesopotamian religion), and the Greeks are still uneasy about this past, and all truly female goddesses. That helps explain why Hera (originally another powerful Mother Goddess) is shown in such a bad light, as well as Aphrodite here. Also, there is a pathetic and comic touch here too, for while human being are hit and killed and die for good, the gods cannot be seriously hurt -- they are, in a sense, playing at war.

Dione comforts Aphrodite, (pages 122-3) reminding her of other times when Gods have been wounded by mortals. This may be a recollection of earlier epic material. In another comic scene (top of page 123) Athene comments rather insultingly on the whole matter. Zeus in turn says that Aphrodite has no place in combat, but in the bedroom. Again, comedy in heaven to contrast with tragedy on earth. This is one of the great contrasts Homer is making, just as the writer of the Gilgamesh epic wanted his readers or listeners to realize the great divide between gods and human beings.

Diomedes, buoyed by this success, charges at Aineas, who is now being protected by Apollo. Diomedes is knocked back three times and Apollo delivers a stern warning "Look out! Give way!/Enough of this, this craze to vie with the Gods! Our kind, immortals of the open sky, will never be like yours, earth-faring men."

As I said above, Diomedes is pictured as a prudent man. He has the sense to realize his place in the universe, and wisely backs away. Later on, Patroclus will attack the walls of Troy, and likewise be knocked back three times, but not have the sense to retreat -- and then is soon destroyed. For the Greeks, it is very important for mortals not to go too far, to know their place. This is one of the lessons of the Epic, for Achilles too will go too far, and disaster will result.

Apollo carries Aineas away and heals him, for Apollo is also a god of healing. Apollo then incites Ares to stir up the Trojans to try to stop Diomedes. Ares, in human disguise, in turn goes down and incites Sarpedon, one of the Trojan allies, a Lycian. Sarpedon will become very important later, for he will be the greatest Hero Patroclus will kill. Sarpedon in turn stirs up Hector. So far the battle has been going in favor of the Greeks, but there must be variety, and now the battle turns in favor of the Trojans. This is explained by the way Ares is helping them and by the fact that Diomedes, following the advice of Athene, refuses to directly confront Ares. (see page 128, bottom half)

After a while Hera gets upset at the Greek retreat and gets Athene's help Notice the arming scene with Athena and her chariot, (page 132). Athene and Hera go to Zeus and protest Ares' intervention. Zeus agrees. Hera and Athene go down to the battlefield. Hera, in the form of Stentor, encourages the Greeks while Athene goes to Diomedes, and rebukes him. Diomedes explains that he is merely following her advice not to confront Ares. Athene excuses him and give him permission to strike even Ares. She then knocks Diomedes' regular chariot driver from the chariot and takes the reins herself, and they go after Ares. This whole scene is probably reminiscent of earlier epics where men and gods were more closely involved. Ares at that moment, like any Greek warrior, is stripping a corpse. Diomedes, with Athene's help, wounds Ares, who roars and retreats. He, like Aphrodite, goes off to complain to Zeus, who clearly despises him, but orders him cared for.

While the deeds of Diomedes are glorious, they are not so glorious that they will detract from Achilles' deeds. He kills only one first rate hero, and the scenes where he attacks the Gods have a certain comic element to them. This is a 'lighter' book, that gives a brief respite before the truly serious next book.

Book 6

Book 6 is one of the most important books of the Iliad, for it gives us deeper insight into Hector and his tragedy. However, the beginning of the book continues the action of Book 5, and gives a bit more of the Aristeia of Diomedes. The gods are temporarily off the field, while the Greeks and the Trojans go at it. The Greeks seem to be winning and we view the new savage attitude in the fate of Adrestus (page 143.) When he is about to be killed by Menelaus, Adretus asked to be ransomed -- more booty that way -- and Menelaus is about to agree, but Agamemnon comes in and orders no prisoners to be taken, and Adrestus is killed. The merciless of Agamemnon will be contrasted with what happens soon between Diomedes and Glaucus.

The Trojans are in retreat, but the prophet Helenos, another brother of Hector, stirs up Aineas to force the Trojans to make a stand, while ordering Hector, rather illogically, to go back into Troy and make prayers to the gods. This is obviously a device just to get Hector back inside to see his wife one last time. But Helenos is a prophet, after, all and Hector heeds his advice.

Elsewhere on the battlefield Diomedes runs into the Glaucus, another one of the Trojan allies. Notice how Diomedes asks if Glaucus is a god, for he, a prudent man, would not unless ordered fight with the gods, for he knows that is the quick way to doom, as shown by the mythical example of Lykourgos, who outraged the baby Dionysos and the nymphs that attended him. Then Glaucus gives a long, long story about his ancestry. Of course, such tales allow both sides to know of what status the enemy is, but there is more here. One of the important ideas of Homeric society (which the Odyssey will make much of) is xenia, that is guest-friendship. If you went abroad, you would make friends and give presents to your foreign host. He would be obligated to you, and when in your part of the world he would give presents to you. These relationships were passed down from father to son. Diomedes, after hearing Glaucus' story, immediately realizes that Glaucus ancestors were guest friends of his father. Diomedes proposes they trade armor, as a way to exchanging gifts. Of course, Homer points out that Glaucus' golden armor was far more valuable than Diomedes bronze armor, but then, Glaucus is leaving with his life. Again, notice how, despite the war, unlike Agamemnon, Diomedes is still able to respect some of the rituals of civilization.

The scene shifts back to Troy, where Hector has just reentered the city. Notice the description of the palace of Priam and how Hector first meets his mother Hecuba. Homer means us to understand that Hector is fighting for his city, his family, his wife and child, not just for glory or revenge, although glory is also a big part of it. Instead of accepting his mother's offer of a drink, he bids her to get the women of Troy (page 150) to make an expensive offering to Athene to save them from Diomedes. But notice that what they choose to offer Athene is a expensive cloak that had been stolen from Greece when Paris took Helen away. One cannot expect the goddess will accept stolen goods as an offering. This again shows the guilt of Troy.

Hector then goes toward the house of Alexandros, to get his shameful brother back to the battle. Hector criticizes Alexandros, who accepts it cheerfully and gets ready for battle. Note what Helen then says (bottom of page 152). She is grateful that Hector is so kind to her -- although she knows she is guilty -- and further knows what an inferior person Alexandros is. Again, this couple is a vivid contrast to Hector and Andromache.

Hector heads off to see his wife and kid, not knowing if he will ever return. He will not. Hector finds that she is not at home, but somewhere on the walls, looking at the battle and seeing if he is all right. He runs off again, and finds Andromache. Notice the focus on the little child Astyanax. Andromache pleads with Hector to be careful, noting that now, since Achilles has killed all her relatives, Hector is her only family. (page 155). This underlines her utter dependence on him. Notice too, however, how nobly Achilles arranged for the burial of Andromache's father. Proper burial will be an important issue here -- it is a sign of civilization, and it will be a mark of Achilles' inhuman savageness when he refuses to give the body of Hector proper burial.

Andromache has pointed out that their whole household depends on Hector staying alive. But Hector is also locked in to the heroic code, as he shows on the bottom of page 155. "Long ago I learn to be brave, how to go forward always, and contend for honor, Father's and mine."

Hector must keep of the demand of honor at all costs -- even though he knows that Troy is doomed. In words that recall Agamemnon's he says

"- for in my heart and soul I know a say will come when ancient Ilion falls." He can imagine the horrors of the fall and Troy, and how his wife will be taken into slavery, but, for the sake of honor he must fight on. And now we too can see how more serious the fight is for the Trojans and Hector than even for the Greeks.

Hector has just shown his despair of the future, and now, in a moment of both humor and pathos, Hector reaches to take his infant son. He knows Troy has no future - and that thus his very son has no future either. Perhaps reaching out to the boy is like reaching for the hope of the future. Both mother and father laugh as the child cries seeing his father in the gory helmet, and then, taking the helmet off, Hector prays that his son, somehow, will rule in Ilion and be better than his father. But we know that, when Troy falls, little Astyanax will be tossed from the walls of Troy by the Greeks.

Hector tries to comfort his wife, saying that all depends on fate, and Hector must face his responsibilities. Notice (157) that they mourn him as he leaves, foreshadowing what soon will happen to Hector.

We see now the tragedy of Hector more clearly, and he is torn by the same conflicting demands of any Greek aristocrat of Homer's time. Honor and glory are everything to them, for it determines their status. Nevertheless, to gain this honor requires they constantly take chances that can cause them to get killed, thus ruining their families.

As Hector leaves Troy he meets his brother, who is running out to battle with all confidence and good humor. One gets the impression that Hector while despairing of him also strangely admires him.

Book 7.

With the return of Hector and Paris, now the Greeks seem to have a hard time of it. Athene jumps down from heaven to help, but Apollo persuades her instead to promote a truce, since it is getting late. Apollo further proposes to cause the fighting to break off the fighting by getting Hector to challenge some Greek hero to personal combat. Helenos (who is, after all, a prophet) realizes what the Gods want and suggests this plan to Hector, who accepts.

What is the point of this duel? Why does Homer show it? Not only for variation, but because, I think, it underlines something important about Hector. We have just seen how Andromache told Hector to be careful and not take unnecessary chances. This is a temptation for Hector. But Hector knows he must first obey the heroic code, and by taking on this duel he seems to force himself to prove the force of the heroic code upon him. The duel is a way of showing his utter commitment to the heroic code. Notice he says on page 164 "..my pride demands that I engage some champion...." And of course, Hector is also told that he will survive.

Of course, it is rather illogical for the Greeks to accept the duel, especially what happened after the last duel, but they do, perhaps just to get a respite from battle.

As Hector maker his request, note also that he declares that he will give the body back. As we saw in the last book, concern for the proper treatment of bodies is increasing, for Homer is preparing us for Achilles' maltreatment of Hector's body. But then notice (still page 164) how Hector envisions the dead man's mound, and how people will address it in the coming time. One point is, of course, the honor Hector and even the dead man will gain by this fight. But one wonders if Homer means for his audience to imagine that Hector is thinking of how his own burial mound will look one day.

Nobody wants to fight the fired-up Hector, and Menelaus stands up and rebukes them. Then, in a semi-comic moment, Menelaus starts putting on his armor with more bravery than brains, only to be pulled down by his brother Agamemnon, who really does care for his brother. Then Nestor gets up and also rebukes the Greeks for their fearfulness, including a paradigmatic lesson from his own life, how Euruthalion once challenged the army of Nestor's people, and only Nestor was willing to fight. And he won and gained glory.

This stings the Greek chiefs into volunteering, and there is some suspense, for Homer has probably invented this duel, and the listener does not know who will fight Hector. Ajax (= Aias) is chosen by lot. Ajax, son of Telemon, is the best Greek fighter after Achilles. Even Hector (page 168) is a bit worried. The fight is relatively short, and one gets the impression that Ajax was winning -- note how relieved the Trojans are to have gotten him back alive (171). But, since it is getting dark, the fight is stopped, a draw declared. Hector seems happy for the draw, and they exchange presents. The Greeks have a feast, and then Nestor proposes first that they make a truce to take care of the dead, and that they also use the time to build a defensive wall around the ship and tents. The Greeks agree.

The scene shifts to a Trojan assembly. Antenor, a wise Trojan councilor, gets up and says that the Trojans should hand back Helen and the stolen Spartan treasure. But Alexandros gets up and refuses, although he does offer to give back the treasure with interest. Then Priam the King speaks. We detect that he is a rather weak man, unwilling to force his children to do what is right. Priam suggests they send a messenger to bring to the Greeks Paris' offer and to make a truce for the taking care of the dead. The messenger is sent, who delivers the offer. Diomedes gives the Greek response -- that the Greeks do not want the treasure or even Helen now, but the destruction of Troy. But they do agree to the truce for the dead.

After the rituals of taking care of the dead (also in formulaic language) the Greeks build the wall and moat around their encampment. On Olympus Poseidon, seeing this, complains to Zeus that the Greeks have built this wall without proper sacrifices, and that it may become more famous than the walls that Poseidon built for the Trojans (page 176)., Zeus, annoyed, declares that, once the war is over, Poseidon can break up the wall and make it vanish. The point here, of course, is to contrast the briefness of the works of human hands or even human events with the gods and with the immortalizing power of poetry.

For a while the Greeks feast, but their sleep is disturbed by the thunder of Zeus as he foreshadows the horrors to come.

Book 8

In book 2 we saw Zeus send a lying dream to Agamemnon, but, apart from that, Zeus has done very little to bring about his purpose; instead mostly the other gods have been acting. In this book Zeus decides to more personally put his plan into motion, and begins by strongly warning the other gods not to interfere, and pointing out (page 182) how much stronger he is than they are. Athene gets permission to at least give the Greeks advice. Zeus rides to Mt. Ida (near Troy) where Zeus will personally supervise matters.

The Greeks and Trojans pour out to fight, and Zeus does nothing until noon but watch the pitched battle. But at noon, when the sun is in mid-position, Zeus raises his scales, and doom is decreed for the Greeks. Here it seems even Zeus is controlled by Fate, although he is able to determine what Fate demands. Zeus signals the reversal of the Greeks with thunder (and we remember that Zeus is a sky-and-weather god.) driving fear into the Greeks so that they begin to retreat. In fact, the only one that stays in the front lines is Nestor, and he does so only because one of his chariot horses is killed.

As I said in class, there is some evidence that, in an earlier version of the Iliad story, Nestor may have had even more power (for Pylos, where Nestor comes from, is an extremely important site) and been more of a co-commander with Agamemnon. Notice how in the last book and in previous books when Nestor seems to suggest something, (such as building the walls, it is done without debate, or even Agamemnon's approval. Further, we know in another version of the Troy story that Patroclus was not Achilles great friend whom he revenged, but Antilochus, Nestor's son, who was killed not by Hector but by Memnon, child of the goddess of sunrise. The climax came in a battle between Achilles, son of Thetis, and Memnon, son of Eos. In that version, it seems Antilochus was killed while trying to save his father, Nestor in that version was a warrior fully able to fight in the front lines, as Nestor is doing here. We shall see in Book 11 how Homer shows Nestor having unusual strength by lifting the Dove cup - another part that predates Homer.

But in this version it is Diomedes, not Antilochus, who comes to rescue Nestor, while Odysseus flees. He kills Hector's charioteer in the process, and would gone after Hector, but Zeus signals the end of Diomedes aristeia by the flash of a thunderbolt. (page 185). Following Nestor's advice Diomedes retreats, although he fears Hector's taunts of cowardice, and begins to turn back around, until he hears again Zeus thunderings (top of page 187). This in turn encourages Hector, who at this point begins to get overconfident. He tries to go after Nestor and his famous golden shield, at which Hera becomes upset and tries to get Poseidon to intervene, but Poseidon refuses.

By this time the Greeks are in the middle of a disorderly rout back to wall, and Hera puts it into the mind of Agamemnon to try to rally his troops (page 188) He prays to Zeus for help, and Zeus, out of pity (for the King of the Gods would have respect for the Chief Greek King), and sends a portent, an omen to encourage the Greeks, an eagle (the bird of Zeus) that drops a fawn near Zeus' altar. The Greeks, including Diomedes, get fired up, and Teucer the bowman, brother of Ajax, has a little aristeia of his own. (page 190). He eventually kills another driver of Hector, who death is described in the beautiful lines about the poppy, much appreciated by critics. Hector with a stone cracks Teucer's collarbone, and then Ajax comes to his brother's defense.

Now the tide turns once more against the Greeks. Hera gets upset at this and tries to tempt Athene to help. Athene goes to get her battle gear, and Zeus eventually sees what is going on, and sends Iris with a threatening message to Athene and Hera. Iris delivers the message (194) and Athene retreats. Zeus goes back to Olympus, and he again chides the two goddesses. After Hera's comments (page 198) Zeus gives a preview of the fighting of the next few days, including the death of Patroclus. We should realize here that Homer means us to see this all as part of the plan of Zeus. While Homer wants a certain amount of suspense, he does not surprise us with truly major events -- such as the death of Patroclus or what will happen around the ships. These are all part of the order of things controlled by Zeus.

Night finally falls, and Hector calls the Trojans to assembly. After issuing various order dealing with security, the wounded and supplies, Hector shows his overconfidence on page 198, for he is sure that the Greeks will fall the next morning. The rest of the book shows the frightening picture the Greeks see of the innumerable Trojans camped right outside of their walls.

Book 9

Now in the Greek camp we can feel the panic. Agamemnon also calls an assembly, but a quiet one, only attended by the leaders he is most sure of, so as not to add to the panic. We saw how in Book II Agamemnon, testing the troops, pretended to be discouraged and wanting to leave. Here Agamemnon says roughly the same thing, but means it.

After a moment of silence, Diomedes gets up and rebukes Agamemnon. We remember in book IV how Agamemnon insulted Diomedes for not being ready for battle, although it was not his fault. Now Diomedes, who has proven his worth as the most outstanding Greek fighter for the past few days, has a chance to criticize Agamemnon. (bottom of page 204). "In your case, the son of crooked-minded Kronos (= Zeus) have you one gift and not both: a staff of kingship honored by all men, but no staying power -- the greatest gift of all." Then Diomedes says that Agamemnon can leave if he wants to, but he and his sidekick will stay and take Troy.

Notice that Agamemnon says nothing in response. He is abject. Now Nestor sees that this is a good time to work on Agamemnon. But at the same time Nestor is the total diplomat. He does not want to humiliate Agamemnon. Instead, Nestor advises Agamemnon give a feast for his captains. This feast is the formal preparation for the next step, to find some plan, as well as a way for Agamemnon, since he gives the feast, to show himself as leader. Notice how they listen to Nestor -- Agamemnon does not even get to say "OK". After the feast is over, Nestor points out how Agamemnon has deeply dishonored Achilles, as all the Greeks see. Now it is time, with their backs to the sea, to try to patch matters up with Achilles.

Agamemnon, driven to desperation, admits fully his mistake (page 207) and offers huge compensation. Of course, there is still a bit of Agamemnon' s old egotism here -- for example, he suggests that Achilles could marry a daughter of his, and still wants ((bottom third of page 208) Achilles to bow to him. But clearly Agamemnon, by offering such compensation, has done enough.

Nestor suggests that Odysseus, Phoinix and Ajax be sent on an embassy to Achilles, and off they go. They walk by the sea, and come upon Ajax playing the lyre. This probably encourages them -- this is not the wrathful Ajax they might have expected, and thus they can approach him with better hope. Is there another reason that Achilles is playing? Perhaps this suggests that Achilles, who has been out of battle, is now singing to himself heroic songs -- singing of deeds when he should be fighting. Notice the harp is something he got in battle, a symbol thus of his former heroic actions.

Achilles immediately offers them generous hospitality. Clearly Achilles thinks he will get what he wants from the Embassy. He will not, and it is unclear if he really understands what it is he wants. But it becomes clear that he wants something neither the Embassy nor Agamemnon can give, or should give.

Once dinner is over, Ajax wants Phoinix to start, but Odysseus, perhaps a bit too sure of himself, butts in. Odysseus first points out the poor situation of the Greeks, and pleads for Achilles to deliver them. Then Odysseus recalls what Peleus, Achilles' father told him, how Achilles should curb his passion and break off quarrels. (page 211, toward bottom). This is Odysseus way of criticizing Achilles without making it too personal. Odysseus urges Achilles to relent, and then repeats the list of gifts Agamemnon offers, omitting, of course, Agamemnon's request that Achilles bow to him. Odysseus ends his speech by again asking Achilles to pity the Greeks and tempting him with the possibility of killing Hector.

Achilles' response is one of the finest passages in Greek literature. Just as Hector's speech to his wife in Book 6 revealed the true character of the man, so Achilles does in this speech. Notice how strongly he rejects what Odysseus has said. First Achilles insists on straight talk -- perhaps a reference to Odysseus as a smooth talker. Then Achilles protests that the same honor seems to be given both to brave man and the coward (perhaps he thinks of Agamemnon.) Agamemnon has mixed up the system of rewards Heroic society is based on. Further, he has little material to show for this fighting -- Agamemnon keeps most of the loot, and now has even taken something away from him. Achilles asks why they are fighting Troy? Obviously for Helen -- and can't Achilles too love a woman? The implication is that, just as Agamemnon has a right to be angry for the theft of Helen, so Achilles has a right to be angry for the theft of Briseis. Achilles becomes increasingly angry, taunts the Greeks for the failure of their efforts to withstand Hector, and swears he will not help, but instead (page 215, top) will leave in the morning. Achilles, then repeats, with greater ferocity, his hatred of Agamemnon. Notice how Achilles says that no conceivable sum could persuade him to come back.

Finally, on page 216, Achilles seems to even more fundamentally doubt the heroic code. Remember, in Hector's speech glory was everything, and only a coward would try to avoid death. But here Achilles seems to say life is worth more than glory. And this is quite a crucial question for Achilles, for he reveals the oracle his mother gave him, that he could die at Troy and have great glory, or go back and life a long but inglorious life.

Why is Achilles' rejection so strong? We should notice what Odysseus does not say. Nowhere in Odysseus' speech does he directly mention Agamemnon's guilt or how bad the Greeks feel that Achilles was humiliated. Odysseus seems to merely treat Agamemnon's gifts as if they were simply a bribe to get Achilles to come back. But this is not the issue. Achilles went to Troy to get honor, the total respect of all the Greeks. Agamemnon clearly has violated that respect. And since he had chosen to trade life for honor, to suffer that disrespect is to annul the meaning of life for Achilles. Thus I think what Achilles' wants is for the other Greeks to condemn Agamemnon and dishonor him -- as Achilles says (page 215, bottom fourth) ".. could Agamemnon ever appease me -- not till he pays me back full measure, pain for pain, dishonor for dishonor." Clearly he wants Agamemnon, leader of the Greeks, to be dishonored. This would balance Achilles dishonor, for it would ruin the person who dishonored him. Achilles had wanted honor, but the normal type of heroic honor -- one that is limited by questions of status or social convention, such as protects Agamemnon -- is not enough for Achilles. He wants unassailable honor, one that does not have to take Agamemnon or the normal rules of the social order into account. Achilles pride is thus excessive, and by refusing this compensation he puts himself in the wrong, as Ajax's speech will make clear. But nevertheless, as I said above, this speech vividly shows the temperament of Achilles, of a extremely proud man whose unreasonable search for honor and status (undoubtedly sharpened by the fact that he may die young) has led him into excess. Achilles is a tragic character, a person of great force whose one-sided character will lead him to disaster. As Agamemnon brought disaster on the Greeks in book one for rejecting the ransom and supplication of the priest of Apollo, so now Achilles rejects the supplication, not only of Agamemnon, but also the Greeks.

Then Phoinix gets to speak. Odysseus had represented one viewpoint, that of the Greek administration, so to speak. Phoinix' speech shows the point of view of Achilles' close friends. Old Phoinix, like Nestor, gives his advice in the form of illustrative stories. His first story, about his own personal history, illustrates the horror of passion, of war within a family and of exile -- and the passionate Achilles is in a type of self-imposed exile. Yet at the same time the fact that he was taken in by Peleus shows the importance of respect for the suppliant. Phoinix makes his best point to Achilles on page 219, where he points out that the gods themselves relent and forgive. In the divine realm there is both Folly, swift and powerful, and the slower, weaker Prayers. The Prayers help a man to beg forgiveness. The point is, of course, if somebody ignore prayers, Folly, sent by Zeus, will destroy him. Then Phoinix points out the Agamemnon has offered ample gifts and a noble embassy to him, and Achilles should head these prayers. Then comes the story of Meleagros, who, because he had been insulted, refused to help his city fight even when friends and family pleaded with him, makes the point that Achilles should accept terms now, rather than wait too late out of pride and get less glory or none at all.

But Achilles still rejects the advice of this dear old tutor. He cannot stand the idea of anybody being both loyal to him and to Agamemnon. But notice Achilles softens somewhat, saying that tomorrow he will only consider whether to go home.

Finally Ajax, who represents the views of a peer and a warrior and the plan man, speaks. He is as blunt as Achilles, and Ajax notes that even one can buy recompense for murder, but here Achilles is obsessed with incurable rage about one woman. Clearly Ajax sees that Achilles is in the wrong.

Now notice, (bottom of 223) that Achilles says "Scion of Telamon and gods of old, Aias, lord of fighting men, you seemed to echo my mind in what you said!" In other words, Achilles at one level knows Ajax is right -- just like Agamemnon during the argument in book one admitted to Nestor that he was in the wrong. But Achilles cannot control his anger. Now we see why 'anger' was the first word of the poem.

The embassy leaves and reports all to Agamemnon. Diomedes shows the disgust that Achilles' action caused, and on this uneasy note the book ends.

Book 10.

With book 9 the first of the three great 'movements' of this epic is complete. The second ends when Achilles learns of the death of Patroclus. In between these two movements the 10th book is a interlude, somewhat comic, that represents a pause before the next serious movement begins. It may have originally been an independent story, and could have been removed from the epic without any loss.

Agamemnon wakes up worrying, and, after meeting an equally sleepless Menelaus, goes around to Nestor and then they summon the other Greek heroes. There is some humor in how old Nestor kicks Diomedes awake. (234). Once the Greek chiefs have assembled, Nestor (again acting like a commander) suggests somebody make a scouting expedition to learn the disposition of the Trojan forces they will have to confront in the morning. Diomedes immediately volunteers, and then seeks somebody to go with him, and chooses the cunning Odysseus. Odysseus had a great reputation for sneakiness (as we shall see in the Odyssey) and he is a logical companion.

They prepare to go out. Notice the elaborate description of Odysseus' boar's tooth helmet, a genuinely Mycenaean item that no longer existed in Homer's time, but was remembered though the epic tradition. Notice how it was first acquired by Odysseus' grandfather, who stole it.

They move out, praying to Athene for success. Meanwhile, the scene shifts to the Trojan camp, where Hector also is looking for somebody to scout the Greeks. Dolon (whose name means 'trick') volunteers. There is comedy here, for, compared to the two Greeks that just volunteered, Dolon is quite outclassed. He makes himself more ridiculous by demanding Achilles' horses as a prize.

Dolon goes out, and is soon tracked and caught by Odysseus. Dolon immediately begs for his life and tells Odysseus everything he knows. There is a cruel humor in all this for the Greeks. Of course, instead of sparing him they chop off his head.

Dolon announced that a troop of Thracian allies had come to the Trojans and Diomedes and Odysseus go off and kill the Thracian King Rhesus and some of this men in their sleep, as well as steal his chariot. Athene finally reminds them to hurry back before they get caught, and they come back successfully, with great glory.

Book 11

The success of the Night Expedition raises the Greek hopes, and they come out fighting the next morning, as Zeus sends down strife. This will be the greatest day of battle. Agamemnon rouses the troops and they arm, and then comes a very elaborate arming scene for Agamemnon (page 252) which signals the coming aristeia of Agamemnon, as well as especially hard fighting, which is further shown by the bloody rain of dew Zeus sends (page 253). The Trojans too move in for the attack. As Zeus and the other gods look on the battle rages, but around lunch-time the aristeia of Agamemnon begins. (page 254.) Among the other triumphs, Agamemnon captures two Trojan brothers (page 255), who, like the earlier Trojan, beg to be ransomed, but Agamemnon ruthlessly kills them. The Trojans begin to retreat back to the walls of Troy, although Zeus keeps Hector unharmed. (page 256). As they reach the walls Zeus decides to send Iris to give a message to Hector. Notice that the promise Zeus makes to Hector is not unconditional victory (257) -- rather he tells him he will give him general victory from the time Agamemnon is wounded to nightfall. In other words, Hector's triumphs are to be limited, but Hector will not admit that.

Agamemnon has a few more moments of glory, but finally he is wounded, (page 259), although he does kill the man who wounded him. Finally the pain stops Agamemnon and he calls for a retreat -- Agamemnon is too easily discouraged. This is, of course, the sign that Hector has been waiting for, as Hector makes clear (top of page 260). The Trojans go on the full offensive, and the Greeks would have been completely routed if Odysseus and Diomedes had not made a stand, although they know Zeus is now against them. But soon (page 262) Paris wounds Diomedes and he is forced to retreat. Odysseus is left surrounded and he too is wounded (page 264) and must retreat. Menelaus and Ajax rescue him, and soon thereafter Makhaon, the healer is also wounded. Nestor, at Idomeneus' urging, takes Makhaon back to the tents. Afterwards Hector heads toward the thick of the battle. although he does not seem to dare to confront Ajax. Then (page 268) we have a wonderful image that sums up Ajax's greatest skill as a defender. He is compared to a powerful ass who boys try to chase from a field, but have little success. Ajax makes an orderly retreat, and in the meantime Eurypylos is wounded. Patroclus will be later be delayed tending his wounds.

Now the scene shifts to Achilles, who has been watching the battle. Rather illogically, he sees Nestor driving some wounded person back to the ships, and calls Patroclus to go and find out who it is. This is a critical moment for Patroclus, as Homer notes (top of page 270). "the other (Patroclus) came, rugged, it seemed, as Ares -- through his doom was fixed that instant."

Achilles sends Patroclus off to see who Nestor brought. The scene shifts to Nestor's tent, where Nestor prepares food and drink. Notice the wonderful description of the "dove cup", something similar which was dug up at Mycenae. Notice too how Nestor is depicted as lifting it with an ease impossible to men now. As I mentioned above, it can be suggested that in an earlier version Nestor had unusual strength for his age, or Homer has used the same formulaic language for lifting something that applies to other heroes for this scene with Nestor.

Patroclus appears and Nestor sees his chance. Patroclus know this, and thus he refuses Nestor's offer to take a seat (271, middle) But Nestor is sly; he stops Patroclus from leaving by playing on his natural curiosity about who else is wounded. And once he has built up steam, Nestor keeps going on with a story, which has an important moral for Patroclus. Nestor tells of how his people were once in a bad way, after their defeat by Heracles and the destruction of most of his family -- just as the Greeks are now in a bad situation. Nestor was forbidden by his father to go and fight -- just as Achilles restrains Patroclus. Nevertheless, Nestor went, and gain incredible glory. Patroclus has yet to make an independent name for himself, and Nestor is tempting him with the hope of godlike glory. Nestor then (page 275) recalls the time when Achilles and Patroclus were sent with the Greek leaders, and how Patroclus was supposed to give good counsel to Achilles. Thus Nestor begs him to plead with Achilles to help the Greeks, or, lacking that, to send Patroclus wearing Achilles' armor.

Clearly, the heart of Patroclus is inflamed, seduced by what Nestor says (page 276 middle) and he goes running back. But matters have to get to their climax, so Patroclus must be delayed by Homer, and thus, just at that moment, Patroclus sees Eurypylos, whom he stops to help.

Book 12

This whole book describes how Hector finally gets though the Greek wall. The book opens as the Greeks are fighting around the wall. As earlier, the poet mentions how this wall will soon totally disappear without a trace. This, of course, points out the briefness of the works of human hands, and also undercuts the great achievement Hector will make in breaking though it. One day it will be all beach again, but today the Greeks and Trojans are fighting around it.

On page 283 Polydamus advises Hector not to try to cross the moat with the chariots, but instead dismount and attack on foot. Polydamus is one of the chief advisors of the Trojans, and almost always right. Hector, this time, takes the advice, dismounts and forms the Greeks into three companies to attack.

All obey the battle plan except Asïos, who tries to ride around the wall to the left. As Homer points out, this action is stupid, and he will fall to Idomeneus, although not in this book. Asïos, tries to make for an open gate, but is frustrated by some Lapiths, a Greek people, who force him to retreat. Notice how Asïos blames Zeus. Soon Hector will likewise get some advice from Polydamus, but he will refuse it, and that will bring disaster on the Trojans, just like at this point Asïos refusal to follow advice has brought frustration. And the reason both Asïsos and Hector do not heed advice is because they misinterpret Zeus' oracle, thinking it is more hopeful than it in fact is.

Now that the soundness of Polydamus' advice has been vividly shown by the example of Asïsos, a new omen appears -- an eagle holds a snake, who bites the eagle, who drops it. Polydamus interprets this oracle to mean that they will win at first (like the eagle) but the Greeks will hit back hard. Thus Polydamus advises Hector not to try to go toward the Greek ships - the cost in Trojan lives will be too high.

But Hector rejects this advice. (middle of page 288). Notice how Hector rejects the bird Omen in favor of what he believes Zeus told him -- we remember how Asïsos also was confident in Zeus. Then notice what Hector says: "and only one portent is best: to defend the homeland." Hector is so caught up in his hopes that he cannot see what is going to happen, cannot heed good advice. Look how Hector insults Polydamus, rather like Agamemnon had in book I insulted Khalchas the prophet.

Hector charges forward and rouses the Trojans to the wall, while the two Ajaxes and the other Greeks rally to the defense. Zeus inspires Sarpedon (who will be Patroclus' greatest victim) to attack the wall. Note the precise statement of the heroic bargain that Sarpedon makes. (pages 290, 291)

What is the point of being honored so

with precedence at table, choice of meat,

and brimming cups, at home in Lykia,

like gods at ease in everyone's regard?

And why have lands been granted you and me

on Xanthos' bank: to each his own demesne,

with vines and fields of grain? So that we two

at times like these in the Lykian front line

may face the blaze of battle and fight well,

that Lykian men-at-arms may say:

"They are no common men, our lords who rule

in Lykia. They eat fat lamb at feasts

and drink rare vintages, but the main thing is

their fighting power, when they lead in combat!'

Glaucus leads out the Lykians to where Menestheus (an Athenian) is who sends for the two Ajaxes along with Teucer, who come. Teucer shoots Glaucus, although not fatally. Sarpedon kills Alkmaon in revenge and then manages to actually grab part of the wall and pull it down, another important stage of the Trojan advance. Ajax knocks him back, the fighting intensifies at that point, with neither side giving way. Hector finally comes up, and picking up a huge rock, smashes the gates. Hector is now inside the walls, and calls the Trojans after him, while the Greeks retreat toward the ships.

Book 13.

The intensity of battle increases in book 13 as the Greeks show their courage by fighting with their backs to the sea. The fight will be further intensified by the fact that Zeus is giving power on one side, Poseidon on the other.

The book begins with Zeus at first looking at the battle, confident that the Trojans are winning. But then his attention wanders (he has to keep his eye on the rest of the Universe, after all) to the North. This allows Poseidon, the younger brother of Zeus and a senior god, to take action. On page 300 we have a wonderful description of the going forth of Poseidon on his sea god, a real epiphany. At this point the Trojans are swarming upon the Greeks. Poseidon, taking the form of Khalkhas, rouses both Ajaxes, and then flies away as a bird, filling both of them with a new spirit. Athena will do this several times in the Odyssey. Meanwhile the rest of the Greeks seem to be weakening (page 302), until Poseidon comes among them and puts new spirit in them.

Homer does not want us to forget Achilles, and notice how Agamemnon is blamed for the treatment of Achilles and his withdrawal (bottom 302, top 303).

Hector and his men come rushing onward, but are stopped dead by the new formation of the Greeks, and another pitched battle ensures. Idomeneus runs into Poseidon just as he is leaving the medic's hut, lusting for more battle. The conversation between Poseidon and Idomeneus signals that Idomeneus is going to have his own aristeia, which soon follows. Notice, in Idomeneus' conversation with Meriones, the semi-humorous description of the coward in battle (308) vs. the brave man. This is the sort of praise and blame with which warrior aristocrats roused themselves to courage in battle. It certainly fires up Meriones.

Idomeneus, when he looks over the battle, decides to go to the left side, which needs some help. It is on the left, we remember, that Asïos charged foolishly with his chariot. The Greeks are glad to see him. As I just pointed out, this battle is especially intense for (page 310)

..................at cross purposes,

the sons of Kronos in their power brought on

bitter losses and death for brave men. Zeus

on the one hand willed for Hector and the Trojans

victory, to vindicate Achilles;

at the same timed he willed no annihilation

of the Akhaians before Troy, but only

honor to Thetis and her lion-like son.

Poseidon for his part now roused the Argives....

Idomeneus goes on a killing spree. Asïos goes to defend the body of Orthryoneus and gets killed. The Trojan Deiphobos leads the fight against Idomeneus. After some reverses Deiphobos goes to find Aineas, who seems to be standing back from the fight, (page 313, toward bottom) due to some resentment against Priam. Homer here is probably acknowledging a tradition where Aineas is the only major Trojan warrior to survive the fall of Troy, and perhaps Aineas survives due to his bad relations with Priam. later, Poseidon, who is on the Greek side, will save Aineas. Now Aineas is convinced to go back into battle, and this scares Idomeneus a bit. There is another huge concentration of warriors, and Idomeneus is forced to retreat. (315). Deiphobus is soon wounded, and we see the exploits of other heroes, like Antilokhos (page 316) and Menelaos (317-8). The Greeks seem to have secured temporary victory on the left, and the scene shifts to where Hector is. The Greeks are being lead by the two Ajaxes, and their Lokrian allies. Hector is beginning to retreat. We see how Polydamus' prediction of what would happen if the Trojans went for the ships has come true. The snake has bitten back. Now (bottom of 321-322) Polydamus advises Hector to reorganize the battle line, for all who have crossed the wall are not fighting. Thus Hector goes to inspect the lines, meeting Paris in the process.

Zeus (bottom of page 323) further intensifies the fight. Notice how the battle is compared (top of page 324) to a storm where wind (= Zeus) and ocean (= Poseidon) rise together, and the book ends with a furious clash.

Book 14.

The book begins with Nestor considering what must be done. He goes outside to get a better view, and then goes to find Agamemnon. The wounded commanders limp to Nestor's tent, while the deadly fight goes on near the ships. Nestor agrees with Agamemnon that the situation is desperate, for clearly Hector has Zeus' help, and this leads Agamemnon into blacker despair. Agamemnon suggests leaving Troy as soon as possible.

Now it is Odysseus who very strongly, and with contempt, abuses Agamemnon. (332) Further, Odysseus points out the practical fact that such a retreat would be very costly in lives. Notice how Agamemnon, now completely humbled, accepts the insult meekly. Diomedes, who has heard this before, after giving his lineage to prove he has a right to make such a bold suggestion, suggests that the wounded commanders go into the battlefield, if only to encourage the troops. The chiefs agree, and Agamemnon leads them out. On the way Poseidon comes to Agamemnon in disguise (334) and note now Poseidon mentions Achilles again -- a thought which would naturally come to Agamemnon's mind. Poseidon points out that everything does not depend on Achilles, for the gods love Agamemnon too. Poseidon then shouts like nine or ten thousand men, putting new spirit in to the Greeks.

The scene shifts to Hera, who is also watching the fight. She is happy that Poseidon is helping the Greeks, but is angry how Zeus is helping the Trojans. Hera forms the plan to seduce Zeus and, while he is sleeping afterward, Poseidon can be more effective. So first Hera (page 335) goes and beautifies herself (in a variation of an arming scene. ) As her ultimate weapon, so to speak, she goes to Aphrodite and, making up a story about needing to reconcile the old gods Tethys and Okeanos, asks to borrow Aphrodite's lust-inducing girdle. Aphrodite gives it to her, and next Hera goes to Hypnos, the god of sleep, and asks his help in making Zeus fall asleep. She offers him a prize chair, but the god refuses, remembering the terrible trouble in got into last time he helped Hera put Zeus to sleep when Hera was making trouble for Zeus' favorite mortal son, Heracles. But Hera promises him the Grace (a type of goddess of beauty) of his choice if he would help her, and, since it turns out that Sleep has long had a crush on the Grace Pasithea, Sleep agrees immediately.

Hera, with Sleep following, then goes to Zeus and tells him she wants to check in with him before visiting Oceanos and Tethys. But Zeus, filled with passion due to the magic girdle, immediately asks Hera to lie down and make love with him. Notice (bottom of 339, top of 340) how rather undiplomatically Zeus says he has never before felt such desire, not even when he mated with a whole list of women Zeus made love to, all while he was married to Hera.

Hera complains that it would be embarrassing to make love in the open, but Zeus makes a golden cloud to cover them. Notice when they lie down in love, how the earth blooms beneath them. (top of page 341). This scene recalls fertility myth and ritual, the Hieros Gamos (= Sacred Marriage) in which a sky god (like Zeus) mates with a mother/earth goddess (like Hera) and thereby makes the earth fertile.

Afterwards Sleep puts Zeus to sleep, and Sleep then tells Poseidon to go further in helping the Greeks, as he soon does, calling words of encouragement to the Greeks. Hector tries to attack Ajax, but Ajax hits him with a bolder and nearly kills him. The Trojans have to carry Hector away from the Greek battle lines, and soon a rout of the Trojans follows as they are turned away from the ships and the wall back into the plain before the city. Ajax again figures prominently.

What is the whole point of this comic episode? Some critics feel that Homer wanted to put in some 'comic relief' so the audience would not become deadened to the horrors of war. Probably too Homer again wants us to see the frivolity of the gods as a contrast to the dark condition of humankind. It's rather like the way that, if we are poor, we feel worse if we see somebody rich.

Book 15

As the Trojans are in full retreat, Zeus wakes up, and he is very mad. He immediately suspects Hera, whom he roundly abuses, reminding her of how he hung her once from heaven with anvils tied to her feet when she tried a similar trick (probably the same event Sleep was referring to). Hera, deeply shaken, tells Zeus a half-truth, that she didn't tell Poseidon to help. That is true -- it was Sleep that acted as messenger. Zeus smiles at her fear (and probably realizes she is lying) and gets back at her by asking her to fetch Apollo and Iris to him, so that Zeus can further his plan. Notice (page 351) how Zeus gives further details of what is yet to happen, from this moment to the death of Hector and the eventual fall of Troy. Again, Homer wants us to see that these are not all random events, but part of the will of Zeus.

Hera speeds to Olympus, and notice (upper half of page 352) how Homer describes how gods can move with the speed of Thought. Hera is in a bad mood anyway, and wants to make trouble. So she rather sadistically tells Ares that his son Askalaphos has been killed in battle. She is trying to goad Ares (who is fighting for the Trojans, a fact that annoys Hera greatly) into defying Zeus . So Ares starts putting on his armor, but his big sister Athena stops him. Notice her line (page 354) "There is no saving the sons of all mankind"

Hera then carries out the command of Zeus, sending Iris and Apollo to Zeus. Zeus orders Iris to warn Poseidon to quit helping the Greeks or there will be war between them. Iris goes down to Poseidon and delivers the message, which enrages the sea god. Just like earthy kings, Poseidon is touchy about his rank, especially because Zeus is only his brother, along with Hades, and thus they should have equal rights. Notice the description of how, at the beginning, Zeus, Poseidon and Hades divided up control of the world. (bottom page 355). Poseidon rejects Zeus' command, but thoughtful Iris asks Poseidon if he really wants to send that message. Poseidon calms down and relents.

Zeus then sends Apollo to heal Hector and to scare the Greeks with Zeus' 'shield of storm cloud." Apollo then goes and revives and encourages Hector, who then goes roaring out to battle. The Greeks, seeing him, are dismayed,. for the miraculous return of Hector signals that Zeus is again strongly working for the Trojans. The Greeks bunch up to try to withstand the attack of Hector (page 359), but Apollo goes before them, waving the storm cloud shield. The Greeks retreat in confusion. Since they need again to cross the moat and wall, but since Homer has already described this once already, Homer makes Apollo simplify matters by merely flattening the wall so the Trojans can run over it. (page 361).

This whole scene scares Nestor, who prays to Zeus to defend them. Zeus responds to the old man's prayer by thundering. Notice (bottom of page 361) that the Trojans, hearing the thunder, believe it is a good omen for them. This shows a major motif of the Iliad, how the Trojans misinterpret omens.

The scene briefly shifts to Patroclus, who we remember has been tending the wounded Eurypylos. Patroclus, seeing what is happening, decides he must leave and deliver his message to Achilles.

By now the Greeks are fighting before the ships again. Ajax the Greater and his brother Teucros (= Teucer) are again leading the defense, but when Teucer tries to pick off Hector, his bowstring snaps. Hector sees this, and is encouraged (365) by this proof of divine assistance. Ajax in turn tries to rally the Greeks. The Trojans and Greeks fall into fierce combat, while Zeus (page 368) waits for the sign that signals the completion of his plan to honor Achilles -- for one Greek ship to be burned. After this, the Greeks will again have total victory. For a while the Greeks withstand Hector, but they finally give way, and are soon fighting between the ships. Nestor tries to rally the men, and Athene blows away the dust that clouds the battlefield so the Greeks can see better.

At this point comes perhaps Ajax's finest moment, when he alone, leaping from ship to ship with a huge pike wards off fire from the ships (page 371). Hector manages to actually touch a ship, is driven back, but Ajax is slowly driven back by countless missiles thrown at him. The book ends, however, with Ajax still staving off fire from the ships.

Book 16.

Book 16 is one of the most important books of the Iliad, for it describes the great deeds and death of Patroclus. It also shows Achilles' responsibility for Patroclus' death.

Patroclus comes into Achilles' tent, crying, Achilles rather humorously questions him. We see here, nevertheless, the great friendship and familiarity between the two men. Patroclus is the one person who is a soul-mate of Achilles. Notice how Patroclus at this point (page 378) is even disgusted with Achilles' behavior. Patroclus doesn't really entertain the possibility of Achilles going out himself, but asks to be sent in his place. He undoubtedly is looking toward the possibility of his own glorification. But Achilles, although deeply moved by Patroclus' speech, cannot get Agamemnon's insult out of his mind. Notice how (middle of page 379) Achilles' even seems to give up his rage "All that we can let pass as being over and done with; I could not rage forever." He is like Agamemnon in book II, who knew the time to make amends had come, but his pride stopped him from going all the way. Achilles' is mindful of the promise he made not to go out unless his own ships were attacked, and instead agrees to send Patroclus. Achilles will not let himself do the right thing -- to go out himself. His justification for all this is a bit illogical, and shows his own confusion of motives. Notice how he says, if he sends Patroclus out (middle of page 380) "...you'll win great honor for me, and glory among Danaäns, then they'll send me back my lovely girl, with bright new gifts as well. " But they were quite willing to do that yesterday -- this is not a reason to send Patroclus out. The problem is that Achilles' plan was to wait until the Greeks were totally defeated, and then go out and defeat the Trojans, so all glory would be his, and all dishonor Agamemnon's. To send out Patroclus out now, before the Greeks are completely defeated, is to thwart this purpose. For if Patroclus is too successful, Achilles will be less needed. This is one reason why Achilles strongly urges Patroclus only to drive the Greeks from the ships. The other reason is that he, suddenly, fears for Patroclus. (380), and the warning not to attack Troy and risk Apollo is exactly a prediction of what will in fact happen. What we should see here is that Achilles has sent Patroclus out to soothe his own conscience, which knows he really should be helping the Greeks, and Achilles does it because he is too stubborn to do the right thing and go out and fight himself. He is trying to have it both ways, and it will cost his friend his life.

Homer keeps all the action in view, and the scene turns to Ajax, who is still desperately trying to keep fire from the ships although struck from all sides. Suddenly (and we know it is a climactic moment, for Homer calls upon the Muse, the goddess of poetry, to help him tell the story) Ajax's pike is broken, and fire is tossed on one of the ships.

Achilles sees this, and hurries Patroclus out to battle. There follows an elaborate arming-scene. But Homer reminds us that Patroclus is not equal to the armor he is putting on, for he cannot wield the spear of Achilles (page 382). The muster of the forces of the Myrmidons (page 383) also signals the importance of the coming events. After this Achilles goes to his hut, and we see the elaborate libation and prayer he makes. Homer makes this scene so elaborate to show how deeply Achilles feels for Patroclus. But Zeus only answers part of his prayer. Patroclus will repel the Trojans, but die in the process.

The Myrmidons go roaring out to battle like angry hornets, and the aristeia of Patroclus begins. The fire is quenched and the Trojans soon driven from the ships. Of course, Patroclus doesn't pay any attention at all to Achilles' admonition to not move the battle out onto the field and toward Troy. We should see here that Patroclus is, like Hector, overconfident with his sudden complete success, and this deludes him into attempting more than he is destined for.

On page 390 we meet Sarpedon, a child of Zeus, who will be Patroclus' great kill. Zeus ponders whether he will save Sarpedon (as he soon will ponder whether to save Hector). Hera points out that all the gods have sons they would want to save, and even Zeus must not interfere with destiny. Zeus can, however, take the body away to make sure it has proper burial. Zeus agrees, but sends bloody rain from heaven as a premonition of what will happen (page 391, lower middle). Patroclus then kills Sarpedon's sidekick Thrasydemos, Sarpedon hits one of the horses, then misses Patroclus, and then Patroclus gives it to him in the chest.

Now there follows (page 392) a battle over Sarpedon's body and armor. This will prepare us for the much fuller battle over Patroclus' body in the next book, as well as preparing us for what Achilles will do with Hector's body in later books. It underscores the important issue of getting the body back.

Glaucus, who was wounded earlier, is healed by Apollo. The Lycians and Polydamus call upon Hector to come help defend the body of Sarpedon and he comes with the Trojans, and meanwhile the Ajaxes come to help the Greeks and a huge battle ensues, which goes back and forth. Again the terrific intensity of this battle is a preview of the even greater battle which will be fought for Patroclus. Finally, the Trojans retreat (page 397) and Sarpedon's corpse is stripped. This being done, Zeus sends Apollo to clean Sarpedon's body and give it to Sleep and Death to take it back to Sarpedon's homeland.

But Patroclus (top of page 398) runs after the Trojans and Lykians, as Homer says

. ....all this to his undoing,

the blunderer. By keeping Achilles mandate

he might have fled black fate and cruel death.

Patroclus is overconfident, consumed with Ate, delusion. After killing more Trojans, he reaches the walls of Troy (where Achilles told him not to go) and three times he tries to mount the walls, and three times Apollo swats him back. The forth time Apollo warns him, and Patroclus withdraws, but not enough, for he still contemplates further attack (top, page 399). While he ponders, Apollo stirs Hector against him. Hector confronts Patroclus, and another one of Hector's drivers is killed, and Patroclus mocks him as he falls from the chariot (top page 400). Both Hector and Patroclus jump from their chariot to fight over the body. The fight goes on until late afternoon. Patroclus makes three attacks against the Trojan lines, killing nine men each time, but the fourth time Apollo (= Phoibus) slaps Patroclus and knocks off his armor and puts him in a daze. Taking advantage of the situation Euphorbos wounds Patroclus, but not fatally. Patroclus tries to retreat, and then Hector comes in for the kill. Hector mocks the dying Patroclus, but, with his dying gasp Patroclus points out that Hector gets only partial credit for killing him, and that soon Achilles will kill Hector.

We can see Hector's overconfidence as he responds, suggesting he has a chance to kill Achilles. This is a delusion that will be fatal to Hector.

Book 17.

Book 17 describes the intense fight around the body of Patroclus and, secondarily, Hector's own delusion. These affairs seem to go on a bit too long. Homer, as always, will delay before the main action (that is, the revenge of Achilles) and thus these events delay the inevitable. Also, the two events that happen in this book are important, and Homer underlines them by making them go on so long. Also, by making the struggle for Patroclus' body seem so difficult, the fact that Achilles is able to save the day merely by appearing beside the wall and shouting makes Achilles seem all the more important. Achilles does with a shout what the entire Greek army could not do by fighting.

While Hector is off trying to capture the horses of Achilles, which Patroclus had been using, Menelaus stands over Patroclus' body. Euphorbus, who had been the first Trojan to wound Patroclus, now comes out against Menelaus. Eurphorbus is young, and it is clear that, because he got in a lucky shot against Patroclus, he feels he is now a great warrior, equal to facing Menelaus. Big mistake. Menelaus kills him easily. This is not just another duel; we should see in Euphorbus' overconfidence a parallel for Hector's behavior. In other words, just as Eurphorbus' success makes him think he is a better warrior than he is, and makes him challenge a greater warrior, so Hector, by killing Patroclus, will also think he can challenge Achilles in the field.

Apollo gets Hector to break off his useless hunt for Achilles' horses and go back to the fight. Menelaus sees that the blazing Hector is being helped by Apollo, and wisely retreats and calls Ajax to help.

Meanwhile Hector strips Patroclus of the armor of Achilles (page 411) and is about try to take possession of the body to disfigure it when Ajax comes up and forces Hector to retreat. Glaucus, another Lydian and Sarpedon's comrade, strongly criticizes Hector, demanding that they get Patroclus' body so they can trade it for Sarpedon's armor and body, which they do not know has been magically transported to Lycia. Hector then goes back to the armor of Achilles, which had been taken from Patroclus, and puts it on. Notice Zeus' reaction to this:

...Ah, poor man,

no least presage of death is in your mind,

how near it is, at last. You wear the gear

of a great prince. Other men blanch before him.

It is his comrade, gentle and strong, you killed,

and stripped his head and shoulders of helm and shield

without respect. Power for the time being

I will concede to you, as recompense,

for never will Andromakhe receive

Achilleus' arms from you on your return.

The point here is that Hector is putting on the armor of a man far better than he, but will only enjoy temporary victory. He has put on the armor partially to humiliate the Greeks by flaunting his triumph overt Patroclus. At the same time, the armor is like a sense of false security that Hector adopts and we see the force of that sense on page 414. So, fired up, Hector again attacks the Greeks guarding Patroclus. Even Ajax is frightened, and Menelaus calls for reinforcements which soon come, although by now most of the really good warriors, like Diomedes and Odysseus, are out of action. Here the truly great battle over the corpse begins, as Homer signals by the lines

Now the Trojans charge, all in a mas,

led by Hector. As at a river mouth

a big sea thunders in against the stream,

high banks resound, and spume blows from the surf,

so came the Trojans shouting. (page 415).

Zeus (bottom of page 415) pours darkness around them so to help protect the body of Patroclus, as he did for Sarpedon. The battle surges back and forth, and at one point (page 419) there is virtually a tug of war over Patroclus' body.

But Homer does not want us to forget Achilles, whom we see on page 420. We feels a twinge of pity for Achilles as he looks over the battlefield, with no idea of what has happened to his friend. The sight of Achilles' divine horses weeping over Patroclus also increases our pity. At the same time Homer also points out, as Zeus regrets giving divine horses to mortal men (421), the great distinction between the gods and men. Homer also does not let us forget the will of Zeus, who promises that Hector will not get the horses, yet

... Glory of killing,

even so, I reserve to his enemies (= the Trojans)

until they have reached the ships, until sundown,

until the dusk comes, full of stars.

It is late afternoon by now, and Hector's day of victory nearly over.

The divine horses race over the ground, with their driver Alkimedon unable to control them, until they rescue Automedon, one of Patroclus' men. Hector calls Aineas to help he capture the chariot. Alkimedon and Automedon call for help, and for a while we have another fight going on around the chariot. Intense fighting soon resumes around the body as Athene, at Zeus' bidding, goes to help the Greeks, while Apollo encourages Hector (426) who drives Idomeneus into retreat. Ajax sees matters are desperate (427) and thinks that the best course of action is to send a messenger to tell Achilles what has happened. But, due to the obscuring cloud sent by Zeus, he cannot see far. Then comes the famous prayer of Ajax

O father Zeus, come, bring our troops from under

the dustcloud. make clear air, give back our sight!

Destroy us in daylight - as your pleasure is

to see us all destroyed!

When we read these lines, and think of other similar episodes which talk about clouds obscuring the battlefield, we should realize how confusing a thing a battle is. No doubt many a Greek warrior, in the haze and blowing dust and confusion of battle, said a similar prayer to the gods.

Zeus disperses the cloud, and Ajax sends Menelaus to find Antilokhos, a friend of Achilles, to tell him what has happened to Patroclus. Menelaus reluctantly leaves the fight and eventually finds Antilokhos -- who doesn't yet know what has happened. Antilokhos goes to find Achilles and Menelaus hurries back to the fight over the body. At Ajax's suggestion, the Greeks lift the body of Patroclus and begin carrying it toward the ships, while the Trojans fight hard to get it and most of the Greeks flee. Notice by the end of the book that Greeks have been pushed back to the moat, losing all the ground that Patroclus gained.

Book 18

Antilokhos comes to the Greek camp, and Achilles, seeing the Greek rout, knows something bad has happened to Patroclus. Antilokhos tells him the news, and we see (page 436) the immediate, terrible grief that Achilles is plunged into. It is ugly, and it is meant to be. His mother Thetis hears him among the Nereides, other sea goddesses, and the beautiful music of the catalogue of their names contrasts powerfully with the sufferings of Achilles and the laments of Thetis for the coming doom of Achilles, her son.

Thetis rises from the sea goes to Achilles in a scene that recalls the episode in Book 1 where Achilles again was weeping over his quarrel with Agamemnon and Thetis came to him. Homer wants us to remember this scene as there comes the heart wrenching moment (bottom 437, top 438) when Thetis ask Achilles "Why are you weeping....Zeus did all you asked. " We and Achilles see that Achilles' prayer has been answered, and the will of Zeus to honor the Achilles by causing ruin to the Greeks, has been carried out. Achilles realizes that, yes, he has gotten what he asked for -- at the cost of Patroclus' life, which completely nullifies any satisfaction me might have gained, and in fact puts him a even worse position. At this point the wrath of Achilles toward Agamemnon has run its terrible course and found its terrible result.

Now in this second part of the epic Achilles will have a new object of wrath -- Hector. That wrath against Hector will be as all-consuming and even more destructive than the anger against Agamemnon. Thetis then points out that it is fated for Achilles to die after Hector (middle 438) and Achilles says "May it come quickly." Achilles is not only willing to sacrifice Hector to his own bitter wrath and anguish, but since Achilles knows to kill Hector is to spell his own doom, he is also sacrificing himself. This wrath comes out of his own feelings of remorse, as he laments how he was no help to Patroclus in his hour of need. Achilles also sees uselessness of his quarrel with Agamemnon and the evils of his anger - which, although he is talking about Agamemnon (top page 439) could also be about himself.

Ai! let strife and rancor

Perish from the lives of gods and men,

with anger that envenoms even the wise,

and is far sweeter than slow-dripping honey,

clouding the hearts of men like smoke.

As we have seen, anger has a terrible sweetness for Achilles the man of wrath. Achilles again swears to kill Hector, even though he knows it will mean his own doom.

Thetis not dispute this, but points out he cannot fight without his armor. She promises to go to Hephaistos and get new armor for Achilles, and so she flies off. The scene shifts back to where the retreating Greeks are still fighting over the body of Patroclus against Hector and the Trojans. Before it is too late, Iris goes at Hera's command and tells Achilles to rise up and help defend Patroclus' body. (441) Achilles rightfully notes he cannot, for he has no armor. Iris then suggests that Achilles simply appear at the edge of the wall.

Achilles rises to action, (page 442) and there follows the epiphany of Achilles. Athene makes flame shoot from his head, and shouts along with him. This uncanny scene shows us Achilles at his most godlike, as an incarnation of fiery destruction. There will be quite a few comparisons of Achilles to fire, to stars, etc. We can feel how Achilles appears at his most awesome and awful and how he strikes others as they see him. The Trojans are immediately terrified, and they abandon the fight over Patroclus' body. This is a preview of the effect Achilles will have later as he goes out against Hector and the Trojans.

As they bring the body in, Hera makes the sun, who has been lingering, watching the battle below, to set. We remember that this is the sign of the end of Hector's day of victory. And thus Homer immediately has the scene shift to the Trojan camp, where Hector seals his own tragic destiny. Polydamus suggests that they do not camp on the plain, as they had the night before, but retreat inside the walls of Troy. We have seen Polydamus give good advice twice before. (443) But (444) in savage terms Hector rejects this advice, and imagines that he and the Trojans have a chance against Achilles (445). As Andromache predicted, Hector's own excessive bravery and quest for honor are leading him to ruin. All the Trojans agree with Hector's plan, but Homer notes that they are fools for doing so, whose wits Athene has taken away.

The scene shifts back to the Greek camp, which is engaged in mourning for Patroclus, led by Achilles. Achilles' speech (446) repeats his remorse and, right after Hector has shown his intent to face Achilles, his firm intent to kill Hector. Achilles also shows his excessiveness in grief as well as wrath, as he vows to capture twelve Trojan prisoners to sacrifice at Patroclus' funeral. Greeks thought human sacrifice a barbaric custom, and we can see how far from humanity Achilles is. Then Patroclus' body is carefully washed and cloaked. We have seen how Sarpedon's body in book 16 was lovingly tended by his family; Patroclus' body is so treated now, and the audience suspects that, eventually, Hector's body too must get this same treatment, for it is what is fitting a great hero.

After a brief interlude where Zeus remarks how Hera has managed, after all, to get Achilles to face the Trojans, the scene shifts to Olympus and the dwelling of Hephaistos, the god of metal working and handicrafts. Hephaistos owes a debt to Thetis, who took Hephaistos in when Hera apparently wanted to get rid of her deformed child. After Thetis explains what she wants and why, Hephaistos immediately sets to work on building the armor for Achilles. Notice in Thetis speech to Hephaistos how she underscores how she was unequally matched with Peleus, Achilles' father, who has now grown old and feeble, and soon will lose her son. Again Hector underscores the great divide between human and god.

In the description of the shield (page 450 ff.) which Achilles will carry, Homer means us to reflect upon the Tragedy of Achilles in the perspective of all of life. Achilles, in effect, carries the world and its ways on his shield, and Achilles' own tragedy thus must not be seen as an isolated event, but only as part of the rhythm of the events of the world, both beautiful and tragic.

The description first emphasizes the depiction of the whole world, the land, the seas, the sun, moon and stars. While the tragedy of Achilles is unfolding, we must remember that the universe still goes on. Then comes the depiction of two cities, one at peace, the other at war. In the city of peace there is some arbitration process going on, which reminds up perhaps of the first stages of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles. The depiction of the city at war (bottom of page 451-452) makes us think of the Trojan war.

Then come a series of picture of the world at peace -- of the harvest and the harvest festival (pages 452-3), and the pastoral world (453.) But even the natural world, as the human world, is one of violence, and we see lions attacking the cattle. The final image is of the beautiful dance.

These images give us needed, pleasant relief after the intense beginning of the book, and puts the tragedy of Achilles in perspective.

Book 19.

The dawn comes, and with it the day of Achilles. We expect that Achilles will immediately go out and fight, but Homer must delay us to get the quarrel of Agamemnon properly resolved as well as build up suspense for the coming confrontation. Achilles is becoming more and more angry and eager to fight, especially once Thetis brings him the divine armor (page 458). Achilles is for a moment worried that Patroclus will begin to rot, but Thetis promises to protect the body. In the meantime, Achilles must be formally reconciled with Agamemnon so that he can have the support of all the Greeks as he goes to attack Hector and the Trojans.

Achilles goes and summons the Greek chieftains, (459) who come limping in -- wounded in the course of the battle that was a result of Achilles' withdrawal. I think Homer wants us to notice this and to contrast it with Achilles' own self-absorption. That is his problem, which is corrected to a certain extent in the last two books. When Achilles is filled with wrath, he can only think of himself and what he wants to do. He cannot see what he has done, cannot admit it, nor can feel proper sensitivity to the needs of others or society. Achilles simply dismisses their quarrel, and its aftermath as an unfortunate incident, making insulting remarks about Briseis in the process. Instead Achilles calls for them to go out into combat immediately.

Now Agamemnon must make a response, and he seems to ramble on. We have seen him utterly humbled recently, and one reason that Agamemnon rambles on is that he does not know quite what to say, for he fears insulting Achilles. So instead of saying much about the quarrel, he blames what happened on the goddess Folly, and then gives a long example of the power of Folly in describing how even Zeus was fooled, with the result that his son Heracles did not have the proper royal birth. Thus now Agamemnon will give recompense. Note the reference to the fact that Agamemnon will give the gifts he promised earlier (bottom 461) Critics suspect here Homer gives us a faint hint of what Agamemnon would have liked to say to Achilles, if he had dared -- that if Achilles had only accepted these gifts yesterday, all this destruction would not have happened, and the chiefs would not be wounded and all these people, including Patroclus, would not be dead. It is a tribute to the high regard of Achilles that the Greek chiefs let Achilles get away with it.

But, as I just noted, Achilles is only concerned with the goal at hand, and he says in effect to Agamemnon (top of page 462) "give me the gifts or not -- whatever." We should see that Achilles refuses to participate in meaningful social processes. But Odysseus forces him to go though the formalities. Odysseus first points out that the army needs to be fed before combat, and then insists that the formal ritual of Agamemnon bringing out the gifts and swearing he did not touch Briseis be carried out. Odysseus' reason for doing this, of course, is to ensure that this sort of social transgression will not again be committed by Agamemnon, as he points out top of 463. Agamemnon agrees to this quickly, but note (bottom half of page 463) how Achilles has no use for such ceremony and even wants to send the troops out hungry. Again, Achilles thinks only of himself and expects others to go along with it.

But Odysseus points out the military stupidity of sending out hungry troops, and thereupon the rituals are carried out. The gifts are given, Agamemnon swears, and Achilles agrees with the excuse that Agamemnon's delusion was god sent -- but of course he does not mention his own part in the problem. (465 toward bottom)

They then go off to breakfast and Briseis goes and sees the body of the dead Patroclus and laments over him. Here Homer neatly ties together the two parts of the story of Achilles. Briseis was the cause of the first wrath of Achilles, and here she mourns over the cause of Achilles' second anger, the dead Patroclus.

Meanwhile the Greek chiefs attempt to get Achilles to eat and to comfort him, but he refuses. Food in Homer is the stuff of life, physical, social and emotional, and Achilles' refusal to be comforted and to eat denotes his separation from human society. We should note that in Book 24, when Achilles becomes humanized, he will tell Priam to give up his grief and to eat. But (as we see on 467) Achilles is still fixated on mourning and wrath. Zeus, seeing this, sends Athene to administer Nectar and Ambrosia, the food of the gods, to Achilles on the sly.

Soon the Greek troops come out in mass along with Achilles, who is blazing with wrath and heartache. (middle page 468). There follows an arming scene, which has the same order that the arming scene of Patroclus had. Critics think Homer wants us to recall Patroclus' arming scene, and to think that, as he arms, Achilles too is thinking of how, on the day before, Patroclus put on Achilles armor, and was sent to his death. That he is thinking of such things is suggested by his address to his divine horses, who Achilles tells to do a better job for him than they did for Patroclus. (middle, toward bottom of page 469).

Then Hera gives the horses power to reply, and they assure Achilles will not die this time, but that he soon will die at the hands of Paris and Apollo. (top of page 470). But Achilles knows too well that he will soon die, but he is fully willing to now sacrifice his own life to his passion for his friend. And thus Achilles goes out to fight, and to his great day of supreme glory.

Book 20.

Now that Achilles' great day of battle and glory is beginning, it must have a suitable preparation, a suitable audience. Thus book 20 begins with Zeus calling all the gods together, who all come to watch or participate. Zeus gives them power to interfere (although hardly any do) in order to slow down Achilles, whom Zeus fears will take Troy before it is destined to fall. So all the gods go down to the field of Troy and fire up their respective sides. We saw how in book 13 the battle became particularly intense as Zeus helps the Trojans and Poseidon helps the other side. Now it will be even more intense, since all the gods (as we see on page 475) are lending their aid. The whole universe seems caught up in this battle, as if it were Armageddon. In this and the following books I think Homer is borrowing themes from older epics and mythology, which depicted enormous battles that marked the early history of the universe, for example, the battle of Gods and Giants, or the Olympians against the Titans, or Zeus against the primordial monster Typhon.

But strangely, the first major fight of Achilles is with Aineas, and it does not seem to be all that conclusive. Achilles does not kill Aineas, but Aineas gets away, as he did before. The reason for this is the Homeric love of ring-composition, as shown, in outline form, in the following illustration. In ring compostion the actions of the beginning of one section correpsond to those at the end. For example, Books 1 and 24 both deal with the question of a suppliant, first Chryeis, the priest of Apollo, then Priam. Books 2 and 23 both show all the Greek chiefs together. Books 22 and 3 have a central duel that sums up a major conflict. Books 4-6 and 20-21 both show the gods participating in battle (as in the stories of the interference of Aphrodite, Ares and Athene in Diomedes' aristeia) and have a conflict with Aineas. Diomedes' aristeia both shows how Achilles acted in the previous years of the war, and foreshadows Achilles' own aristeia. In the earlier episode, Aineas was saved by Aphrodite, and here he is saved by Poseidon. Such use of basic patterns to create large structions in art was characteristic of the art of the Greek geometric period.

Ring composition

The Aineas scene is so long due to the epic poets' love of amplifcation and expansion, that is, since this battle with Aineas is more important, it must be longer. Yet at the same time, it seems to me that Homer shows Aineas aware that he is being delayed by an artifical convention, as when he says to Achilles, after their long taunting speeches: (top part, page 481)

Come, no more childish talk, here at the heart

of a great battle. Each side has a mass

of bitter words to say: no deepsea ship

could take that load, even a hundred bencher.

Men have twisty tongues, and on them speech

of all kinds; wide is the grazing land of words,

both east and west. The manner of speech you use,

the same you are apt to hear. By what necessity

must we goad one another face to face

with provocations? like two city women

ruffling into the middle of the street

to wrangle, bitten by rage

with many a true word.....

Poseidon saves Aineas, for Aineas must survive to make sure the race of Troy does not die out.

This contrast between Achilles and Diomedes is important, for it will mark how different, and less merciful and human Achilles is. In the next book Achilles will meet Lycaon, and deal with him without mercy, which will make us remember how Diomedes treated Glaucus.

Homer further plays with our expectations. We know that at some point Achilles is going to confront Hector directly, and thus in this book it seems we will have this confrontation, but Hector is pulled away, and the finale delayed. Achilles, frustrated at losing the chance of killing Aineas, calls to the Greeks to fight. Hector likewise calls out to his Trojans, but Apollo (top of page 485) tells Hector not to attack Achilles. Achilles kills Polydoros, a brother of Hector (486) and Hector, deeply grieved, seems ready to fight Achilles. (bottom of 486). Hector throws a spear at Achilles, which Athene deflects, and Apollo then hides Hector. Achilles, angered again, goes off to kill other Trojans, and the book ends with a horrid picture of Achilles as a killing machine with his blood-soaked chariot.

Book 21.

In his attack Achilles divides the Trojan forces, forcing some toward the city while trapping the others at the river Xanthos. Achilles leaps in with his sword after them, and captures twelve of the Trojans to sacrifice at Patroclus' funeral (page 494). He then goes back to killing. Now comes an important scene, as Achilles encounters Lykaon, whom he had captured and ransomed before, but who was sold back to is father, only to go back into war and to face Achilles again. Lykaon begs Achilles to ransom him again, but this is a different Achilles that he meets. In this scene we, in Lykaon's speech, see the more human Achilles of past time, in Lykaon' execution we see the merciless Achilles of this moment, yet in Achilles' speech to Lykaon we catch a note that foreshadows Achilles' future understanding of the human condition that will allow him to be reconciled to Priam. Look what Achilles says (bottom of page 496 ff. )

.. Come, friend, face your death, you too.

And why are you so piteous about it?

Patroclus died, and he was a finer man

by far than you.. You see, don't you, how large

I am, and how well-made? My father was noble,

a goddess bore me. Yet death waits for me,

for we as well, in all the power of fate.

A morning comes, or evening or high noon

when somebody takes my life away in war,

a spear-cast, or an arrow from the bowstring.

This, as I just said, points to what Achilles will fully appreciate later. Achilles realizes that he, Patroclus and Lykaon are all bound by the human condition, the common fate of death, which comes to all, no matter how noble. By fully discovering this, Achilles will be able to enter sympathetically again into the human community.

But for now Achilles is too blinded by his wrath to follow this insight, and he kills Lykaon and feeds him to the fishes. This merciless treatment prepares us for how Achilles will treat Hector, and makes us start to feel pity for the Trojans and for Hector.

Next Achilles attacks and kills Asteropaios, the son of a river god. This killing marks a change of tone and atmosphere for the poem, for in the battle with the river god, who is both a person and a river at the same time, we have a recollection of an earlier type of myth and folk tale. Some critics say these scenes and the following ones are a type of comic relief before the horrors of book 22, like the scenes in which Diomedes wounds Ares and Aphrodite. That may be true to some extent, but I also think that Homer is aware, if Achilles is to be truly an above average hero, he must not only have mortal opponents but must recall the greater god heroes of earlier mythology whose deeds were frankly fantastic, such as Heracles. Notice how, when Achilles has finished killing Asteropaios (page 499 middle) he brags that the son of a river god is no match for a son of Zeus. This makes sense, but the fact is that Achilles is not the son of Zeus -- although Achilles is the son of Peleus who is the son of Aeacus who was the son of Zeus. Heracles, of course, is the direct son of Zeus, and Homer seems, in preparation for Achilles fantastic battle with the personified elements of nature, to give Achilles a lineage more suitable to such a hero.

Thus Achilles is attacked by the river Xanthos. We remember that Achilles has been pictured as fiery, and perhaps we can see in his fight a mythological allegory of the fight between fire and water. Achilles is nearly drowned, but both Poseidon and Athene come to comfort him and help him. In turn the River Xanthos calls out for help to the nearby river Simoeis (like one Homeric warrior calling to another for support) and they together attack Achilles. But Hera sends Hephaistos the fire god to help Achilles, somewhat like Shamash sends the winds to help Gilgamesh fight Humbaba. The fire of Hephaistos burns up the rivers, who surrender. One wonder if, in the myth that this tale may be based on, the god hero more directly used his fire-power.

At this point all the gods join in the fighting, a scene that does have definite humorous touches. Notice what great pleasure Zeus gets looking at it. (bottom page 505). Ares first goes after his sister Athene, who knocks him down with a rock, and mocks him just as a Homeric hero would. Next Aphrodite, who leads the beaten Ares away is also knocked out by Athene.

Phoibus Apollo and Poseidon seem to be paired off, but, as I noted elsewhere (I think), Poseidon and Apollo are the chief gods of the Ionians, and Homer was probably an Ionian, and he tends to treat them with more respect. Thus they go off the field without fighting each other or humiliation. Artemis reviles her brother (page 508) for not fighting. Artemis is a virgin goddess of nature and the hunt, and Hera is a mother goddess. It is somewhat logical they are paired off, but their fight is pure humor, as Hera grabs the quiver of Artemis and boxes her ears, as if she were a unruly child. Hermes (who is something of a trickster and no real warrior at all, and knows it) gives in to Leto, who goes to tend her weeping child Artemis. (509).

All the gods seem thereafter to leave the field except Apollo, who wants to protect Troy. We now see Priam, ordering the gates opened to take in the survivors, fearful of the coming of Achilles. Achilles tries to cut off the Trojans from entering, but Apollo stirs up Agenor (page 510) to challenge him. Notice the fearful deliberative speech of Agenor to himself before he attacks Achilles. This will prepare us for a similar speech Hector will make before he makes his stand against Achilles. Like Hector, he knows he cannot escape Achilles, and his only hope is to stand and fight. Agenor throws his spear, but it does not penetrate Achilles' armor. Before Achilles can kill him, Apollo takes Agenor away and assumes his form, and leads Achilles on a wild goose chase away from the walls so the other Trojans can get inside safely.

Book 22

Here finally is perhaps the most climactic book of the Iliad, where Achilles will confront Hector. We saw earlier, however, the Homer wants us to pity Hector, and to see Achilles as a terrible killing machine, and this process continues here. It is interesting, as critics have noted, that, although Achilles is the 'hero' of this epic, in this chapter Homer seems intent on all our pity being for Hector. And yet we do not totally lose sympathy with Achilles, for his wrath, as terrible as it is, comes out of a noble feeling for his friend. And also, in a way, it is selfless, for Achilles, as we have seen several times, knows fully that satisfying this passion of his means his own death. In what Achilles does he is going to give up his own life, and knows it. Also, in his unconquerable force Achilles partakes of the amorality of the gods, whose actions we tend to see as beyond good and evil.

Once all the surviving Trojans, except Hector, are within the walls, Apollo drops his disguise and lets Achilles know whom he has been chasing and how Apollo has tricked him. Achilles' reply is bitter (page 516) as he wishes it were possible for humans to injure the gods. Achilles hurries toward Troy, and his terrible destructive power is summed up in the comparison of Achilles to the blazing star Sirius, which signals the season of fever. Note that it is Priam who sees him, and in the following passages our pity for Hector grows as we see the pitiful attempt of his father and mother to get Hector to come inside and save himself. Priam (pages 516-7) points out all the sons of his that Achilles has killed, and how Troy itself depends on his survival. He finally makes it more personal, describing his horrible fate when Troy falls, which is Homer's way of letting us see the coming fall of Troy and what it will be like. The plea of his mother Hecube is more personal, as she begs him to pity her as his mother, and to pity his wife as well. Andromache does not appear -- Homer keeps her ignorant of what is happening, so that he can show her reaction after Hector is killed.

Then the scene focuses on Hector's debate within himself. Note how Hector doesn't seem to even acknowledge the pleas of his family. This is because of what is really motivating him - the force of the heroic code of honor. He knows that he has caused the unnecessary death of hundreds of Trojans though his overconfidence that kept them on the plain when they could have retreated inside Troy the night before. Hector is ashamed to face the accusation of the townspeople (top, page 519). The only way he can regain his honor is to fight Achilles and either win or die nobly. But Homer makes Hector human, and a human has doubts. Hector knows for sure that he is no match for Achilles, and, for a moment, he seems to fantasize about how he just might make an offer to give up Helen and the wealth of Troy and save his own life. But Hector does not long linger on this, for he knows Achilles would never agree. Thus Hector decides to fight, to give his life for honor.

But surely, you might say, doesn't Hector have a responsibility to put aside personal concerns of honor and face the humiliation so that he can live another day and further delay the fall of Troy? We would say yes, but that is to miss the tragedy of Hector, for his conception of personal honor will not allow it.

Then something else strange happens. After we have heard the soliloquy of Hector, full of brave, if tragic, nobility, we see Hector, as Achilles approaches, simply run away. Does that not make him seem cowardly? We have seen other heroes willing to face Achilles, even though they know that they might die. So why does Hector run away?

Critics answer this question by saying that, as Achilles draws closer and closer to his goal, his fierceness and terror increases. He is like a god in an epiphany, and the gods have the ability, in their glory, to instill unconquerable fear into Hector. All the hatred and fury of Achilles is concentrated on Hector in a way it was not upon any of his other opponents. The sheer divine force of this wrath breaks the heroic, but only human, nerve of Hector. Thus Hector's flight does not show his cowardice, but rather the terrific force that Achilles is. And of course, by having Hector run away Homer is increasing our fearful suspense and pity for Hector further. This is more of Homer's technique of Amplification. Notice how Homer mixes the terror of the flight and pursuit with images of peace, as when Hector passes the washing pools of the Trojans (middle of page 420) The importance of the duel is further shown by the very close attention the gods give it as Hector runs for his life. Zeus, as he did before Sarpedon was killed, contemplates saving Hector's life -- for even the gods are touched by pity -- but here Athene points out that this would be contrary to fate, as Hera did earlier with reference to Sarpedon. Thus, briefly, Zeus sends Athene down to put a finish to Hector.

The tension and horror is increasing as Hector's flight from Achilles is compared to a nightmare dream of unending flight. Then Zeus weighs both lives in the scales of Fate, and Hector's moment of doom is come. Athene disguises herself as Deiphobos, one of Hector's closest brothers, and she persuades Hector to stop so that they together might stop Achilles.

This scene tends to disgust modern audiences, for Achilles is unmatched away, so why on earth does he need to get the help of Athene? The point, I think, is that Homer wants us to utterly pity Hector, and realize his doom is not only the result of Achilles wrath, but of the gods. Hector is completely, utterly doomed. And, paradoxically, to be doomed by the gods in such a personal is to be in some sense a greater person. The gods do not involve themselves with a Thersites.

Thus Hector stops, and now challenges Achilles. Hector tries to make Achilles swear not to dishonor his body, (bottom of page 523) but Achilles is implacable. Notice the images that make Achilles no human, but a lion, a beast in his inhumanity. Achilles tosses and misses, and Athene gives his spear back to him. Hector, after a reply, in turn tosses his spear, which bounces off the shield. He then turns to borrow Deiphobos' spear, but sees nobody.

This is the moment that Hector most fully realizes his doom on the human and divine level, and comes to terms with it. (page 525)

Death is near, and black, not at a distance,

not to be evaded. Long ago

this hour must have been to Zeus' liking

and to the liking of his archer son.

They have been well disposed before, but now

the appointed time's upon me...

Knowing he is doomed, Hector determines to go down fighting, and draws his sword to attack. Achilles hurts his spear, hitting him in the neck, but not breaking the windpipe so Hector can have a few last words. After Achilles' mocking words, that threaten Hector's body, Hector once more pleads for his body to be given to his family. But note (bottom page 526) how utterly inhuman Achilles is, how excessive he is. Achilles wishes he could eat Hector raw, like an animal. Notice too, as he says he would not give back Hector's body for twenty times what Priam could spend, Achilles recalls the scene in which Achilles said he would not give up his wrath toward Agamemnon even for twenty times as many gifts. Again, Homer wants us to see that, as Achilles was excessive and extreme in his anger at Agamemnon, so too he is excessive and extreme in his hatred toward Hector.

Hector knows now pleading will achieve nothing, and with his last words predicts the coming death of Achilles. But Achilles accepts that.

Die, make an end. I shall accept my own

whenever Zeus and the other gods desire.

They strip the body, which is further abused by all the Greeks. Achilles for a moment thinks of how the Trojans will now conduct the campaign, but immediately (top of page 528) his thoughts turn back to Patroclus. Again, Achilles is acting for himself alone. And, as we will see, Achilles' cannot control his wrath, and killing Hector does not really help it, any more than getting gifts from Agamemnon helped the earlier wrath. But Achilles keeps acting on his wrath, as if further outrages might make it go away. And thus he ties the dead and naked Hector to his chariot and drags it in front of the wall of Troy, where Hector's parents can see it.

The rest of the books shows the lament over the Hector by the Trojans. Priam rolls in the mire and is barely kept from going outside to plead with Achilles. Hecuba likewise mourns. Homer saves Andromache for the last. She, like Achilles earlier, did not know what was really happening with her loved one. but, as she hears the cries, runs madly to the walls and sees Achilles dragging her husband's body. As she faints her headdress falls off, symbolic of the end of their relationship, for it was a bridal gift for her. When she revives, her lament recalls what she earlier said to Hector as she describes the terrible fate to come for her son, who will no longer have a father to protect him. The book thus ends in general lamentation.

Book 23

Some older critics have suggested that Books 23-24 were later additions to the Iliad, since, they thought nothing needed to be done after Achilles' has gotten his revenge. But in fact there is much that needs to be done, for Homer's poem is about more than Achilles' wrath and revenge, but also about the rehumanization of Achilles and the fate of Hector. The final glorious burial that both Sarpedon and Patroclus get makes us feel that we cannot leave Hector so dishonored, not after Homer has spent so much time in making us love and pity Hector. Further, since we have seen from previous episodes that Achilles was not always the monster that we see in book 22, we know that Achilles too needs to more fully come to terms with his wrath and with the limitations of his life and needs to again become a part of the human community.

This process begins in book 23. The book begins with the Myrmidons again lamenting the dead Patroclus. We note again Achilles' excessive anger, even as he threatens further abuse of the poor, dead Hector, and promises to sacrifice twelve Trojans to Patroclus. Notice how Homer calls it 'shameless abuse' (page 536 middle). All these honors to Patroclus and all this abuse of Hector really do not do Achilles much good, do not really soothe his heart, although he keeps trying more and more extreme measures. Notice on top of page 537 Achilles even refuses to wash the gore from his body before Patroclus is burned. Achilles gets Agamemnon to gather the Greeks to get the wood for Patroclus' pyre, which they will do the next morning.

But that night, as Achilles again sleeps on the shore (symbolic of his isolation from humanity) Patroclus appears to him in a dream. As Patroclus criticized Achilles' extreme attitudes in book 16, so now he begs Achilles to hurry up and give him proper burial, so that he can take his proper place in the underworld.

This book also, like book 12 of the Epic of Gilgamesh, shows something of the nature of the underworld, as Achilles tries to embrace Patroclus, vainly, and we see Achilles' exclaim:

. ..........A wisp of life remains

in the undergloom of Death: a visible form

through no heart beats within it.....

We can see that in delaying Patroclus' funeral Achilles is refusing to give up his friend, to finally come to terms with what has happened. Similarly, in other translations, Gilgamesh is pictured as holding on to Enkidu "until the worm dropped off his nose...."

The next morning a huge work party goes out to gather the wood for the pyre, and then begins the funeral. Uncounted sacrifices and libations are made, including the Trojan youth (page 541). Achilles (top of page 540) cuts his hair for Patroclus, an offering he was intending to make when he came home, but which now Achilles gives to Patroclus, since he knows there will be no homecoming for him. When Achilles tries to light the pyre it will not catch (perhaps because it is too wet) but Achilles prays to the winds, who, sent by Iris, come and blow the flames to a great blaze, giving further divine honor to Achilles and Patroclus. Achilles spends the whole night making offerings by the fire, until he finally collapses in sleep at dawn beside the pyre. Again, vainly, Achilles his trying to quench his rage and remorse.

He is soon awakened by Agamemnon returning with the rest of the troops, and Achilles asks for a suitable tomb to be built for Patroclus, which is rapidly done. Now Achilles is ready to celebrate the funeral games for Patroclus.

Let us consider the function of these funeral games. These scenes bring again on-stage for one last time, all the main Greek heroes, so we may see them one last time in a better, less tragic setting. It is a bit like a curtain call. Obviously these games are also meant to honor Patroclus. But, even more importantly, these games show Achilles becoming more humanized, again part of society. In giving prizes he is showing his respect for the rest of the Greeks, although with him in a superior position. They show that Achilles is willing to join whole-heartedly in the rituals that hold society together. This is a significant advance, because we saw in book 20 how reluctant Achilles was to go through the formal rituals of reconciliation with Agamemnon. And yet, while the narrative of the contests makes a lighter mood, we never forget Achilles, who is important throughout. These scenes hint that, despite our grief, the world must go on, that we cannot always dwell in our grief, but in order to relieve it we must again become engaged in the world, tragic as it is, which is the great lesson Achilles points out in book 24. Thus these scenes are an important bridge to that last book.

Achilles brings out all manner of great prizes from his own wealth to give to the winners, as well as to the losers. The first contest is the most prestigious (as it was in Homer's time in the great Greek games that were then being organized, like the Olympic games) the chariot race, and thus its action-packed narrative is longest. We see old Nestor again giving his sage advice, this time to his son. There are spills and thrills aplenty -- which again illustrates the theme of chance and divine intervention that we have seen in the war episodes. Another interesting point is that, during the race and immediately after, quarrels erupt. First, as the winners are coming down the stretch, Idomeneus and Ajax get into a quarrel, which almost becomes serious, until Achilles stops it. It is as if Homer wants us to see that Achilles finally has learned the lessons about the futility of such quarrels from what happened in the previous books. Diomedes comes in first, then Antilokhos, then Menelaus, then Meriones, then, last of all, Eumelos, dragging in the remains of his chariot that had snapped apart during the race, although he was leading. Achilles wants to give him second place, but Antilochkos protests, and will not yield. Remember this is a point of honor. Achilles relents and give Eumelos another prize. But then Menelaos gets upset, because Antilochkos used a illegal maneuver to get ahead of him. But then Antilochkos yields to Menelaus and Menelaus gives the prize back to him. So not only has Achilles learned his lesson, but other Greeks as well. One prize remains, and note that Achilles gives it to Nestor, even though he didn't compete at all. He does this not only out of honor of Patroclus, but as a way of showing his respect to Nestor. Again, giving honor is what holds society together, and we have seen that people deserve honor not only due to their feats on the battlefield (and the activity of chariot racing is a substitute for this kind of feat, since chariots are used in warfare) but also for good counsel. Achilles formerly did not have much respect for this other kind of way of getting honor (which is why he devalued Agamemnon) but now Achilles' viewpoint has broadened. In other words, Achilles now has a better appreciation of what makes society function, not only military prowess, but persuasion, which is Nestor's great skill. Nestor, of course, accepts it with a short story of his former prowess in athletic games, saying at the end (page 555)

This I take kindly, and my heart is cheered,

that you remembered me as well disposed,

remembering too, the honor that is due me

among Akhaians.

The next contest is boxing, and Epeios wins, but both fighters gets good prizes, again both get honor. The next contest is wrestling, and Ajax and Odysseus go at it. This fight is quite symbolic, for Epic knew of the quarrel of Ajax and Odysseus that happened after Achilles died. Both claimed the right to get Achilles' armor as having done the most good for the Greeks. Ajax claimed it by right of being the best fighter after Achilles, while Odysseus claimed it because his own tricks and planning had done more for the Greeks than Ajax's killing ability. Odysseus won. And here, although clearly Ajax is the stronger man, Odysseus manages to throw him due to a neat wrestling trick. In the next try they both fall down. But Achilles does not let the fight go on, but gives to both equal prizes.

Next comes the foot race, and again Athene interferes, and Ajax slips face first in a heap of dung. Antilokhos gets third place, but gets a bit more honor by his praise of Achilles.

Next comes a spear-fight and Ajax and Diomedes, the two greatest warriors after Achilles, contend. It seems that Ajax was about to get the worst of it, but again the Greeks break off the fight. They get equal prizes, as Achilles, it seems, divides the armor between them.

The next contest is the weight toss, and the relatively obscure Polypites wins.

The next contest is archery, and there Meriones wins. The final contest is the spear cast. Meriones and Agamemnon rise to compete, and notice that Achilles awards the prize to Agamemnon without anybody making a spear cast at all. We remember that earlier one of the accusations Achilles made against Agamemnon was that he got prizes without earning them, yet here Achilles gives this gift to Agamemnon unearned. The point is that Achilles wants to make sure that all heroes get honor, and he realizes now that Agamemnon deserves honor too, for what he has done, for what he is, and thus awards him the prize. This is a Achilles who has learned something.

Book 24.

Now we come to the conclusion of the poem, one of the grandest bits of Greek and indeed of mortal literature. Despite the funeral games, we see Achilles at the beginning of the book still grieving over Patroclus, and wandering lonely beside the side of the sea. This he does for eleven nights. And each day he hitches up his horses and again drags poor dead Hector around the walls, although the gods are protecting the body from ruin. Clearly Achilles cannot get over his grief, and something must be done, for he is violating the rules of man and god. That these events are important is shown by the divine assembly that meets to discuss the issue. The rehumanization of Achilles is that important, as is the fate of Hector's body.

Phoibus Apollo, who was Hector's greatest supporter, speaks angrily against Achilles. Notice how he repeats some of the sentiments that Ajax made during the Embassy of Book 9.

The man has lost all mercy;
he has no shame -- that gift that hinders mortals
but helps them too. A sane one may endure
an even dearer loss; a blood brother,
a son, and yet, by heaven, having grieved
and passed through mourning, he will let it go.

Earlier, Ajax pointed out that Achilles refuses Agamemnon's compensation, although traditionally people accept recompense even for the death of loved ones. Similarly, Achilles is being excessive again for not letting Hector's corpse go.

Hera, unreasonably, points out the Achilles is semi-divine, and he should get special treatment. (569). But Zeus agrees with Apollo, and calls for Thetis. We should see here how Homer rounds out his poem by inverting motifs of the first book. There a great wrong was done and wrath begun by the rejection of a suppliant, and. after Achilles' humiliation, Achilles sent Thetis up to Zeus to help her son. In this book Achilles will accept a suppliant, and thus end the evil effects of his wrath, and this time it is Zeus that sends Thetis to Achilles to help him. Homer wants us to remember that Achilles' life is drawing to a close, and thus we see Thetis in mourning for her son (page 570). Thetis, wearing mourning, goes to Zeus, and is sent by Zeus to tell Achilles the gods are angry with him and demand he give up the corpse to Priam for sufficient compensation.

Thetis goes down to Achilles, reminds him (as she always is doing) that he is soon to die and delivers Zeus' message. Achilles simply agrees. Zeus then sends Iris to Priam with his commands and assurances of protection. Iris goes, and we see Priam filthy with mourning amid the equally pitiful people of Troy. Iris repeats Zeus message virtually word for word and flies away. Priam announces the message, but the people of Troy are full of disbelief and terror for him. They fear and hate Achilles, and feel that Priam is casting his life away for nothing. Priam decides he must go, although the terrible anger he shows toward his sons probably shows the immense strain he is operating under. The hitching up of the wagon and the loading in of the goods function as an arming scene. The deeply worried Hecube (mother of Hector, wife of Priam) begs that Priam make an offering to Zeus and ask for an omen to ensure his safety. Priam does this, and Zeus sends his eagle to reassure him. (578). Nevertheless, as he leaves

"Family and friends all followed weeping/ as though for Priam's last and deathward ride. "

These lines are suggestive, for in what follows Homer uses some of the mythological motifs of a death journey, a description of somebody going down into the underworld. For example, Priam travels in darkness, and then rests his horses at a stream (the underworld is thought to be surrounded by either a stream or a body of water) where he meets Hermes. One of Hermes' duties was to conduct souls down to Hades, the underworld. Of course, Hermes does not let Priam know who he is at once, for he instead claims to be another Greek, a follower of Achilles (580). When they get to Achilles' camp, it is shown with a huge wall and a gate with a massive cross bar, (582) that none but Hermes and Achilles can lift by themselves. This is symbolic of the kingdom and the gate of Death, and Achilles is symbolic of the Lord of the Dead, as is fitting, for the Lord of Death keeps corpses, and Achilles is keeping the body of Hector. Hermes, before he leaves, tells Priam who he is. Notice that Hermes says he must leave and not see Achilles, for that would compromise an immortal's dignity. (top page 583) But why does he say this, since by now several gods have met with Achilles? Again this has probably something to do with the death journey motif, for in other works Gods often say that they cannot face the presence of death. Even Hermes does not go into the underworld, but merely escorts souls to it its borders.

Priam goes inside, and approaches Achilles and adopts the position of a suppliant and kisses the 'the hands of wrath that killed his sons." And notice (bottom of page 583 ff.) how Priam addresses Achilles, invoking Achilles' father. The point is that Priam is asking Achilles to imagine what Peleus, Achilles' father, must feel, having lost his son to war, and how even more pitiful he is, having lost so many sons. Of course, as Achilles hears this, he can think of how Peleus will in fact soon feel, for Achilles can see in old and pitiful Priam how his own father will mourn when he hears that Achilles is dead. So far Achilles has thought basically only of himself and his own grief. But now Achilles is humanized because he now can think of the grief of another, his own father. Thus Achilles suddenly sees in Priam and what has happened to him the connection between what has happened to himself, to Peleus, to all humanity. All are joined together in one common human sorrow that must transcend, if not heal, our pain. They are united in their mutual sorrow. But one must move beyond sorrow, and accept it as the lot of humankind. And this Achilles sees as he shows in the magnificent words to Priam (page 585)

We'll probe our wounds no more but let them rest

though grief lies heavy on us. Tears heal nothing,

drying so stiff and cold. This is the way

the gods ordained the destiny of men,

to bear such burdens in their lives, while they

feel no affliction. At the door of Zeus

are those two urns of good and evil gifts

that he may choose for us; and one for whom

the lightning's joyous king dips in both urns

will have by turns bad luck and good. But one

to whom he sends all evil -- that man goes

contemptible by the will of Zeus...

The point is that it is our destiny to either enjoy good and evil or all evil. Only true bliss is given to the gods. Achilles then points out that his own father Peleus once had very good fortune, but now he is old and feeble without the comfort of his son. Likewise Priam once ruled the most prosperous city in the world, but now bad times have come for him. And then note what he says

...no one had wealth like yours, or sons like yours.

Then gods out of the sky sent you this bitterness:

the years of siege, the battles and the losses.

Endure it then. And do not mourn forever

for your dead son. There is no remedy.

You will not make him stand again. Rather

await some new misfortune to be suffered.

While Achilles is speaking to Priam, he is also speaking about what he himself must do. Achilles must give up his eternal mourning for Patroclus and await his own death. He must simply accept the pain of life and endure.

We should see at this point how Achilles is still struggling with his own uncontrollable wrath. It is not that Achilles does not know what is right, but rather that his wrath is almost an independent part of him, with its own irrational logic and behavior, which Achilles must control. Thus Achilles becomes angered at Priam's urgent request to see Hector immediately, for it means giving up that habit of wrath that he has been trying to console himself with, and warns Priam lest Achilles, despite himself, kill the old man then and there.

Achilles acts quickly. He unloads the gifts, and then orders the body tended. Notice how he lifts the body so Priam will not see it, for Achilles worries that the laments of Priam may unhinge him. Then, after Hector has been properly tended, it is Achilles himself who lifts Hector up and puts the body in the wagon, at the same time praying for Patroclus' forgiveness.

Achilles then comes in and announces to Priam that the body has been given back and invites Priam to eat. We should remember that eating is symbolic of human society, and that Priam has not eaten for these past days out of grief. Achilles explains his point with the parable of Niobe (587-8), who lost twelve children to the arrows of Artemis and Apollo. They unburied for nine days, until the gods made graves for them. Then Niobe thought of food, although was later turned to stone. The point is that grief must give way to life (symbolized by food) although evil fortune still awaits us.

Then Achilles himself takes a hand in preparing a meal, and Priam and Achilles eat together, symbolizing the fact of their common humanity. And afterwards both men admire each other in respect and peace and silence. It is not a peace without grief, for both to the end of their days will, like Niobe, bear an almost unbearable load of grief. But it is a peace that is rooted in understanding, that makes us simply go on.

Then Priam asks for a place to sleep -- notice how this shows his trust of Achilles. Achilles makes a bed for him. At the last moment Achilles asks Priam how must time Priam needs for the funeral of his son. Notice that now Achilles honors Hector, wanting to make sure that Hector has a proper funeral. Priam says eleven days are needed for the funeral and its preparations after which '' and on the twelfth give battle, if we must." The war will go on, Achilles will die, Troy will fall, Priam and all his Trojans will be destroyed. This is fated. But this fate does not mean that we must live and die without honor and respect.

Achilles agrees and takes Priam by the hand, as he might have taken his father, and leads him to bed. They both sleep, Priam by himself, and Achilles again with Briseis.

Hermes comes and wakens Priam and send him back to Troy. This is a kind of reversal of the death journey. Again Priam crosses a body of water, is escorted by Hermes, and travels in darkness, and arrives at Troy at dawn. It is interesting that the prophetess Cassandra first sees them.

The book ends with the lament and funeral of Hector. Andromache's lament is the most sorrowful, for she again previews what will happen to them now that Hector is dead, especially the sad fate of her son (592). Homer does not want us to forget the consequences of the tragedy of Hector. Even Helen laments. Then the funeral is carried out and so "they performed the funeral rites of Hector, tamer of Horses."